1. C++ 程序语言设计 Chapter 11: Operator Overloading

2. Outline  Operator overloading  Using of friends  Overload “<<” operator

3. thinking about “*” and “+”  How many methods to use “*”? 5 * 3; int* point;  How about operator “+”? int i, j, k; k = i + j; int i[10], j[10], k[10]; K = i + j;//is it right?, how to do it?

4. operator and function call  another way to make a function call  differences between operator and function call: The syntax is different The compiler determines which “function” to call. double i, j, k; k = i + j; float i, k; int j; k = i + j;

5. add arrays each other  Normal method for(int num = 0; num < 10; num ++) { k[num] = i[num] + j[num]; }  Define a class for array, use member function addsum() objK = objI.addsum(objJ);  Overload “+”operator objK = objI + objJ;

6. Warning & reassurance  make the code involving your class easier to write and especially easier to read.  Make your operator overloading reasonable.  All the operators used in expressions that contain only built-in data types cannot be changed. “ 1 << 4”  Only an expression containing a user- defined type can have an overloaded operator.

7. Syntax  operator@(argument-list) @ represents the operator that’s being overloaded The number of arguments in the overloaded operator’s argument list depends on two factors:  Whether it’s a unary operator or a binary operator.  Whether the operator is defined as a global function or a member function.

8. Syntax class Salesperson{ float money; Salesperson operator+(const Salesperson &) const; } district2, sid, sara; district2 = sid + sara; district2 = sid.operator+(sara);

9. Example-count time 5 hours, 40 minutes + 2 hours, 55 minutes = 8 hours, 35minutes See the file: time0.*, time1.*, time2.*

10. the restrictive use  cannot combine operators that currently have no meaning (such as ** )  cannot change the evaluation precedence of operators  cannot change the number of arguments required by an operator  至少必须有一个操作数是用户定义类型

11. the restrictive use  不能违反运算符原来的语法规则  不能重载下面的操作符： sizeof 、. 、.* 、 :: 、 ?: 、 const_cast 、 dynamic_cast 、 reinterpret_const 、 static_cast  下列运算符只能通过成员函数进行重载 = 、 () 、 [] 、 ->

12. Operators can be overloaded +-*/%& |-=!=<> +=/=%=^=&=|= <<>>==!=<=>= &&||++--->->* ()[],<<=>>=new deletenew[]delete[]*=

13. Using of friends A = B * 2.75 => A = B.operator*(2.75) A = 2.75 * B => A = operator*(2.75, B)

14. Using of friends friend Time operator*(double, const Time&); Time operator*(double mult, const Time& t) { Time result; long totalminutes = t.hours * mult * 60 + t.minutes * mult; result.hours = totalminutes / 60; result.minutes = totalminutes % 60; return result; }

15. Overload “<<” operator  设 trip 是一个 Time 对象，显示 Time 的值： trip.Show(); cout << trip;  cout << “hello world” << endl;  必须使用友元函数，否则 trip << cout; void operator<<(ostream& os, const Time& t){ os << t.hours << " hours, " << t.minutes << " minutes" << endl; }  cout << “trip time: ” << trip << “!”;

16. 成员函数与非成员函数的比较  对于多数运算符，可以选择使用成员函数和 非成员的友元函数实现运算符重载。 Time operator+(const Time&) const; friend Time operator+ (const Time& ， const Time&); A = B + C => A = B.operator+(C) A = operator+(B, C)

17. Non-member operators Basic guidelines OperatorRecommended use All unary operatorsmember = ( ) [ ] –> –>*must be member += –= /= *= ^= &= |= %= >>= <<= member All other binary operatorsnon-member

18. Unary operators  the syntax to overload all the unary operators See the file: OverloadingUnaryOperators.cpp

19. Increment & decrement  friend function ++a => operator++(a) a++ => operator++(a, int)  member function ++b => B::operetor++() b++ => B::operator++(int)

20. Binary operators  the syntax to overload all the Binary operators See the file: IntegerTest.cpp, ByteTest.cpp

21. self-assignment  all of the assignment operators have code to check for self-assignment  The most important place to check for self-assignment is operator= because with complicated objects disastrous results may occur  handle a single type, also possible to handle mixed types

22. Arguments & return values  function argument not change : const reference left-hand argument : not const const member function  the type of return value depends on the expected meaning of the operator returned by value as a const

23. Arguments & return values  all the assignment operators modify the lvalue, the return value for all of the assignment operators should be a nonconst reference to the lvalue  the logical operators get at worst an int back, and at best a bool

24. Arguments & return values  increment and decrement operators Understand the meanings of them Both of them are const ++a (a pre-increment), it generates a call to operator++(a); but when it sees a++, it generates a call to operator++(a, int).

25. Arguments & return values  return by value as const Matching the temporary object. f(a+b) When you send message to return value, can just call the const member function. (a+b).g( )

26. the return optimization  return Integer(left.i + right.i); building the object directly into the location of the outside return value. requires only a single ordinary constructor call no copy-constructor no destructor call  Integer tmp(left.i + right.i);return tmp; created the tmp object the copy-constructor copies the tmp to the location of the outside return value call the destructor

27. Unusual operators  The subscript operator[ ] must be a member function and it requires a single argument the object it’s being called for acts like an array often return a reference be conveniently used on the left-hand side of an equal sign

28. Unusual operators  Operator-> used when you want to make an object appear to be a pointer must be a member function additional, atypical constraints :  must return an object (or reference to an object) that also has a pointer dereference operator  must return a pointer that can be used to select what the pointer dereference operator arrow is pointing at see the file :SmartPointer.cpp

29. Unusual operators  Operator->* provided for those situations to mimic the behavior provided by the built-in pointer-to-member syntax must first create a class with an operator( ) see the file :PointerToMemberOperator.cpp

30. Overloading assignment  Understand the assignment in C++ MyType b; MyType a = b; a = b; initializing an object using an =,copy- constructor will be called. See CopyingVsInitialization.cpp  When dealing with the = sign If the object hasn’t been created yet, initialization is required otherwise the assignment operator= is used.

31. Behavior of operator= member function  = can be only a member function. objA = 5; 5 = objA;  must copy all of the necessary information from the right-hand object into the current object. See SimpleAssignment.cpp self-assignment  Avoid situation of self-assignment.  Pointers in classes if the object contains pointers to other objects. Simply copying a pointer means that you’ll end up with two objects pointing to the same storage location. You must deal with this things.

32. Behavior of operator=  two common approaches to this problem: 1. copy whatever the pointer refers to when you do an assignment or a copy-construction. see : CopyingWithPointers.cpp 2. Reference Counting copy-construction or assignment means attaching another pointer to an existing object and incrementing the reference count.  Save the memory and reduce the initialization overhead.  Destruction means Reduce the reference count destroying the object if reference count = 0; copy-on-write Use copy-on-write. See ReferenceCounting.cpp

33. Behavior of operator=  Automatic operator= creation Compiler create a = if you do not make one. See :AutomaticOperatorEquals.cpp Suggestions: 1.Make = by yourself. 2.If you donot want to use it. declare operator= as a private function.

34. Automatic type conversion  In C /C++, compiler can auto convert type for expression and function call.  In C++, define auto type conversion functions for class to convert type. 1.Particular type of constructor 2.Overloaded operator.  Constructor conversion a constructor single argument an object (or reference) of another type See : AutomaticTypeConversion.cpp

35. Automatic type conversion Benefits Benefits: avoid that define two overloaded versions of f( ). Defect Defect: hidden the constructor call to Two  Preventing constructor conversion sometimes constructor conversion can cause problems to turn it off use the keyword : explicit Means do not use the constructor to do auto conversion It is only to specify constructor. See : ExplicitKeyword.cpp

36. Automatic type conversion  Operator conversion Use operator to define a overloading operator. operator followed by the type you want to convert to. It is unique for there is not a return type. The return is the name you’re overloading. Maybe some compiles do not support it. See : OperatorOverloadingConversion.cpp

37. Automatic type conversion  Reflexivity One of the most convenient reasons to use global overloaded operators is for : automatic type conversion may be applied to either operand. Member function can only to right hand operand. left- hand operand must already be the proper type. See :ReflexivityInOverloading.cpp “1-1;”???  Type conversion example see : Strings1.cpp Strings2.cpp

38. Automatic type conversion  Pitfalls in automatic type conversion You should design your conversions correctly. otherwise  compiler must choose how to quietly perform a type conversion  There are two ways: 1. Constructor. 2. Operator. see : TypeConversionAmbiguity.cpp TypeConversionFanout.cpp

39. Automatic type conversion  Hidden activities Automatic type conversion can introduce more underlying activities than you may expect. see : CopyingVsInitialization2.cpp be award of the synthesized auto calls by compiler The default constructor copy-constructor operator= destructor.  Automatic type conversion should be used carefully

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