1. Module 12 Remembering & Forgetting

2. Recall vs. Recognition Recall Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues Recognition Identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues

3. Organization of Memories Network Theory We store related ideas in separate categories, called nodes As we make associations between information, we create links among thousands of nodes Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of files

4. Network Hierarchy l Nodes n Memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic l Network hierarchy n Arrangement of nodes in a certain order n At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete information n These nodes are linked to more specific information, which is connected to more general information m 1. ABSTRACT: animal m 2.MORE SPECIFIC: bird m 3. CONCRETE: blue jay

5. Forgetting Curve l Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time Ebbinghaus n One of the 1st psychologists to study memory & forgetting n He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

6. 4 Reasons for Forgetting 1) Repression n Mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious 2) Poor Retrieval Cues n Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we create by forming vivid mental images or creating associations between new information & information we already know 3) Amnesia n Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the brain after drug use or after severe psychological stress 4) Interference n Recall of a memory is blocked by other related memories

7. 2 Types of Interference Proactive n Old information blocks the remembering of new information Retroactive n New information blocks the remembering of old information

8. Retrieval Cues Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental images of information or associating new information with information that you already know

9. State Dependent Learning It is easier to recall information when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as when you originally learned the information Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Strong feeling that a particular word can be recalled, but despite a great deal of effort, we are temporarily unable to recall the info.  Poor encoding or interference Retrieval Cues (cont.)

11. Location of Memories in the Brain Cortex - short & long term memories n Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain Amygdala – emotional memories n Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in the tip of the temporal lobe n Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our memories Hippocampus – transferring memories n Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe n Transfers declarative information (words, facts & events) from STM into LTM

12. Location of Memories in the Brain (cont.)

13. Mnemonic Methods l Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations or images l Mr. MIMAL l 2 Types 1) Method of Loci m Create visual associations between already memorized places & new items to be memorized 2) Peg Method m Create associations between number-word rhymes and items to be memorized m One is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree; four is a door; five is a hive

14. Can False Memories Be Implanted? l Researchers interviewed parents about events that occurred in their children’s lives during the past 12 months l Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these events including some fictitious events l Children were asked to “think hard” & identify the events that actually happened Bar graph data from “Repeatedly Thinking About a Non-Event: Source Misattributions Among Pre-Schoolers,” by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman, E. Smith & E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 388-407.

15. How Accurate is an Eyewitness? Own-Race Bias n Researchers found that an eyewitness of one race is less accurate when identifying an accused person of another race Confidence n 6 reviews of studies concluded that there is a weak relationship between correct identification & level of witness confidence