1. 7.3 Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations If f(n) represents the number of operations required to solve the problem of size n, it follow that f satisfies the recurrence relation f(n) = af(n/b) + g(n) this is called a divide-and-conquer algorithms and recurrence relations Example 1: Binary Search We introduced a binary search algorithm in section 3.1. 1

2. The binary search Algorithm 3: the binary search algorithm Procedure binary search (x: integer, a 1, a 2, …,a n : increasing integers) i :=1 { i is left endpoint of search interval} j :=n { j is right endpoint of search interval} While i < j begin m :=  (i + j) / 2  if x > a m then i := m+1 else j := m end If x = a i then location := i else location :=0 {location is the subscript of the term equal to x, or 0 if x is not found} 2

3. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 3: Merge Sort Algorithm 9 A Recursive Merge Sort. Procedure mergesort(L = a 1,..., a n ) If n > 1 then m :=  n/ 2  L 1 := a 1, a 2,...,a m L 2 := a m+1, a m+2,..., a n L := merge (mergesort(L 1 ), mergesort(L 2 )) {L is now sorted into elements in nondecreasing order} 3

4. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 4: Fast Multiplication of Integers There are more efficient algorithms than the conventional algorithm (described in section 3.6) for multiplying integers. Suppose that a and b are integers with binary expansions of length 2n. Let a = (a 2n-1 a 2n-2... a 1 a 0 ) 2,b = (a 2n-1 a 2n-2... a 1 a 0 ) 2 Let a = 2 n A 1 + A 0, b = 2 n B 1 + B 0 A 1 = (a 2n-1... a n+1 a n ) 2, A 0 = (a n-1... a 1 a 0 ) 2, B 1 = (b 2n-1... b n+1 b n ) 2, B 0 = (b n-1... b 1 b 0 ) 2, the algorithm for fast multiplication of integers is based on the fact that ab can be rewritten as ab= (2 2n +2 n ) A 1 B 1 + 2 n (A 1 - A 0 ) (B 0 - B 1 ) +(2 n +1)A 0 B 0. 4

5. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations This shows that if f(n) is the total number of bit operations needed to multiply two n-bit integers, then f(2n) = 3f(n) + Cn This reasoning behind this equation is as follows. The three multiplications of n-bit integers are carried out using 3f(n)-bit operations. 5

6. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Theorem 1: let f be an increasing function that satisfies the recurrence relation f(n)= af(n/b) + c Whenever n is divisible by b, where a ≧ 1,b is an integer greater than 1, and c is a positive real number. Then f(n) is O(n log b a ) if a >1, O(log n) if a =1 when n=b k,where k is a positive integer, f(n) = C 1 n log b a +C 2 = C 1 a k +C 2 where C 1 = f(1)+c/(a-1) and C 2 = -c/(a-1). 6

7. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 6: Let f(n) = 5f(n/2) + 3 and f(1) =7. Find f(2 k ), where k is a positive integer. Also, estimate f(n) if f is an increase function. Example 7: Estimate the number of comparisons used by a binary search. f(n) = f(n/2) + 2. Example 8: Estimate the number of comparisons used to locate the maximum and minimum elements in a sequence using the algorithm given in example 2. f(n) = 2f(n/2) + 2. 7

8. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Theorem 2: Master Theorem Let f be an increasing function that satisfies the recurrence relation f(n)= af(n/b) + cn d Whenever n=b k, where k is a positive integer, a ≧ 1, b is an integer greater than 1, and c and d are real numbers with c positive and d nonnegative. Then f(n) is O(n d ) if a < b d, O(n d log n) if a= b d, O(n log b a ) if a > b d. 8

9. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 9: Complexity of Merge Sort In Example 3 we explained that the number of comparisons used by the merge sort to sort a list of n elements is less than M(n), where M(n)=2 M(n/2) +n. By the Master Theorem (Theorem 2) we find that M(n) is O(n logn), which agrees with the estimate found in section 4.4. Example 10: Estimate the number of bit operations needed to multiply two n-bit integers using the fast multiplication algorithm described in Example 4. 9

10. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 11 : Estimate the number of multiplications and additions required to multiply two n x n matrices using the matrix multiplication algorithm referred to in example 5. The function for the number of multiplications and additions is f(n)=7f(n/2)+(15/4)n 2. 10

11. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations Example 12: The Closest-Pair Problem Consider the problem of determining the closest pair of points in a set of n points (x 1,y 2 ),..., (x n,y n ) in the plane, where the distance between two points (x i,y i ) and (x j,y j ) is the usual Euclidean distance [ (x i -x j ) 2 + (y i - y j ) 2 ] 0.5. This problem arises in many applications such as determining the closest pair of airplanes in the air space at a particular altitude being managed by an air traffic controller. How can this closest pair of points be found in an efficient way? (FIGURE 1 ) 11

12. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations FIGURE 1 The Recursive Step of the Algorithm for Solving the Closest-Pair Problem. 12

13. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations FIGURE 2 Showing That There Are at Most Seven Other Points to Consider for Each Point in the Strip. 13