1. Explanations of dysfunctional behaviour G543

2. Types of Phobias Specific Phobias Fear of a specific object or situation such as: - –Arachnophobia – Fear of spiders –Claustrophobia – Fear of enclosed spaces –Aerophobia – Fear of flying –Acrophobia – Fear of heights –Alektorophobia – Fear of chickens –Androphobia – Fear of men –Carnophobia – Fear of meat –Emetophobia – Fear of vomiting –Phobophobia – Fear of phobias!

3. Social Phobias Fear of humiliation in public places. Some sufferers fear eating in restaurants or using public toilets, others fear meeting strangers or public speaking. They are afraid that someone will see them expressing their fear – by blushing, a trembling hand or a quavering voice and think badly of them. As a result they try to avoid certain social activities and situations.

4. Agoraphobia This is a fear of public places – of shopping malls, crowded streets or travelling on public transport. At first sight agoraphobia appears to be another social phobia. However, in most cases it begins with a series of panic attacks. The sufferer has a feeling of impending doom and often fears dying, going mad or losing control. As a result they are afraid of having a panic attack in a place where they don’t feel safe and where there may be nobody around to help the. Where social phobics are afraid of others watching them, agoraphobics are fearful for themselves. Safety, rather than embarrassment is their main concern.

5. Explanations for Anxiety Disorders - Phobias –Biological Genetic factors: - Phobias tend to run in families, this suggests a genetic component. The prevalence rate for both specific and social phobias is higher in first-degree relatives than more distant relatives and the general population. For example, Ost (1992) found that 64% of people with a blood and injection phobia have a first degree relative who shares the same disorder. The prevalence rate for the general population is just 3-4% What other explanation could be given for these findings?

6. Automatic Nervous System (ANS) (synoptic link to Stress) Research indicates that the ANS is more easily aroused in some individuals than others. This makes them more sensitive to environmental stimuli. Since the ANS is involved in fear, the arousal level of the ANS may make some more vulnerable to phobias than others.

7. Biological Preparedness From an evolutionary perspective, many aspects of behaviour are influenced by genes that have become established in human populations because of their survival value. Seligman’s preparedness theory suggests that humans have a genetically based tendency to respond quickly to danger, often without thinking. Many of the most common phobias are based on things, which may have threatened human survival. These include phobias of snakes, spiders, heights and darkness. Those who feared such dangers were more likely to survive and pass their genes onto to future generations.

8. Psychodynamic Explanations Psychodynamic theorists see phobias as a result of the conflict between the Id and the Ego. According to Freud, the Id is the instinctive part of the personality and often has unacceptable impulses (usually aggressive or sexual); The role of the Ego is to control these impulses. The fear that these impulses might be expressed in behaviour causes anxiety.

9. Psychodynamic Explanations In response to this anxiety, the impulses are repressed – they are pushed into the unconscious by the Ego, by means of various defence mechanisms. However, they remain in the unconscious and are often displaced – the anxiety produced is transferred to another object or situation, which then becomes the focus of the phobia. The phobia, in some way, represents the source of the original anxiety. By avoiding the phobic object or situation, the person avoids having to face up to and deal with the repressed conflict.

10. Psychodynamic Explanations Little Hans Study could be used here!

11. Cognition Cognitive theorists argue that the way people think about, judge and appraise situations affects the likelihood of a fearful response. People with phobias tend to focus on the negative aspects of situations. Having experienced a negative event, this negative focus means they are more likely to believe that it will reoccur in the future.

12. Behaviourist Explanations Phobias are seen as learnt behaviour, either through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or social learning theory.

13. Classical Conditioning can explain the development of phobias: Watson and Raynor conditioned an 11 month old child Albert to have a phobia of white rats by pairing playing with the rat with a loud noise ( a metal sheet being hit by a hammer).

14. Classical Conditioning – Watson & Rayner (1920) conditioned a baby boy known as Little Albert to fear white rats. For several weeks, Albert played happily with a white rat showing no fear. One day, while he was playing with the rat, the experimenters struck a steel bar with a hammer close to Albert’s head. Albert was very frightened by the noise. This was repeated each time he reached for the rat. Albert then developed an intense fear of white rats Albert then generalised this fear to other white fluffy objects such as a rabbit’s tail and Father Xmas’ Beard.

16. Task: Write out the procedure for this study and explain why Little Albert developed a fear