1. Foodstuffs and their energy contents © Michael Palmer 2014

2. Carbon pools in carbohydrate and fat metabolism © Michael Palmer 2014

3. Triacylglycerol and its cleavage products © Michael Palmer 2014

4. Solubilization of fat by detergents © Michael Palmer 2014

5. Uptake and re-packaging of digested fat in the small intestine © Michael Palmer 2014

6. The lymphatics drain excess fluid from the interstitial space © Michael Palmer 2014

7. Chylomicrons are drained from the intestine through the lymphatics, bypassing the liver © Michael Palmer 2014

8. Lipoprotein lipase extracts triacylglycerol from chylomicrons © Michael Palmer 2014

9. Two activated forms of fatty acids © Michael Palmer 2014

10. Activation of fatty acids and transport to the mitochondrion © Michael Palmer 2014

11. Reactions in β-oxidation © Michael Palmer 2014

12. Shared reaction patterns in β-oxidation and TCA cycle © Michael Palmer 2014

13. The reaction mechanism of thiolase © Michael Palmer 2014

14. Utilization of propionate © Michael Palmer 2014

15. Organ relationships in triacylglycerol utilization © Michael Palmer 2014

16. Brown fat tissue © Michael Palmer 2014

17. Medium-chain fatty acids ● contain less than 12 carbon atoms ● low content in most foods, but relatively high (10–15%) in palm seed and coconut oil, from which they are industrially prepared ● triglycerides with medium chains are more soluble and more rapidly hydrolyzed by gastric and pancreatic lipase ● not efficiently re-esterified inside intestinal cells; systemic uptake mostly as free fatty acids ● reach mitochondria by diffusion, without prior activation to acyl-CoA and acyl-carnitine

18. Ketone body metabolism © Michael Palmer 2014

19. Synthesis of acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate © Michael Palmer 2014

20. Decarboxylation of acetoacetate © Michael Palmer 2014

21. Acetone can serve as a precursor for gluconeogenesis © Michael Palmer 2014

22. Anticonvulsant effects of acetone and acetol © Michael Palmer 2014

23. The acetyl-CoA carboxylase reaction © Michael Palmer 2014

24. The structure of fatty acid synthase © Michael Palmer 2014

25. Phosphopantetheine acts as a flexible tether in acyl carrier protein © Michael Palmer 2014

26. Fatty acid synthase reactions (1) © Michael Palmer 2014

27. Fatty acid synthase reactions (2) © Michael Palmer 2014

28. Mitochondrial export of acetyl-CoA via citrate © Michael Palmer 2014

29. Mitochondrial export of acetyl-CoA via acetoacetate © Michael Palmer 2014

30. Elongation and desaturation of fatty acids ● elongases reside in mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum ● chemistry of elongation similar to β-oxidation in mitochondria, similar to fatty acid synthase in the ER ● desaturases occur in the ER, introduce double bonds at various positions ● double bonds are created at least 9 carbons away from the ω end—ω-3 fatty acids cannot be formed and are therefore essential

31. Cerulenin, an antibiotic that irreversibly inhibits fatty acid synthase © Michael Palmer 2014

32. Fatty acid synthase inhibition slows tumor growth in mouse experiments © Michael Palmer 2014

33. The glyoxylate cycle © Michael Palmer 2014

34. Reactions in the glyoxylate cycle © Michael Palmer 2014