1. Cell Structure Chapter 4

2. Prokaryotic Cells Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus. -genetic material is present in the nucleoid

3. Prokaryotic Cells Prokaryotic cells possess -genetic material in the nucleoid -cytoplasm -plasma membrane -cell wall -ribosomes -no membrane-bound organelles

4. Prokaryotic Cells

5. Prokaryotic cell walls -protect the cell and maintain cell shape Bacterial cell walls -may be composed of peptidoglycan -may be Gram positive or Gram negative

6. Prokaryotic Cells Flagella -present in some prokaryotic cells -used for locomotion -rotary motion propels the cell

7. Prokaryotic Cells

8. Eukaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells -possess a membrane-bound nucleus -are more complex than prokaryotic cells -compartmentalize many cellular functions within organelles and the endomembrane system -possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure

9. Eukaryotic Cells

11. Nucleus -stores the genetic material of the cell in the form of multiple, linear chromosomes -surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of 2 phospholipid bilayers -in chromosomes – DNA is organized with proteins to form chromatin

12. Eukaryotic Cells

13. Ribosomes -the site of protein synthesis in the cell -composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins -found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm and attached to internal membranes

14. All cells have certain structures in common. 1. genetic material – in a nucleoid or nucleus 2. cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix 3. plasma membrane – a phospholipid bilayer

15. Cell Theory Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke. Early studies of cells were conducted by - Mathias Schleiden (1838) - Theodor Schwann (1839) Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.

16. Cell Theory 1. All organisms are composed of cells. 2. Cells are the smallest living things. 3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells. All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the first living cells.

17. Cell Theory Cell size is limited. -As cell size increases, it takes longer for material to diffuse from the cell membrane to the interior of the cell. Surface area-to-volume ratio: as a cell increases in size, the volume increases 10x faster than the surface area

18. Cell Theory

19. Microscopes are required to visualize cells. Light microscopes can resolve structures that are 200nm apart. Electron microscopes can resolve structures that are 0.2nm apart.

20. Most prokaryotic cells are encased by a strong cell wall and can be classified using the Gram staining procedure. Gram Positive – thicker cell wall retains the violet stain Gram Negative – thinner wall, does not retain violet stain, but will appear pink due to the second stain applied.

21. The Human Eye Resolution – The minimum distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points.

22. If smaller than 100 micrometers, the light reflected strikes the same “detector” cell at the rear of the eye Only when the objects are larger than 100 micrometers will the light from each strike different cells, allowing your eye to resolve them as two objects rather than one.

23. MEANING? Anything smaller than 100 micrometers, your eye cannot determine what it is without help.

25. Light Microscopes Bright-field: Light is simply transmitted through a specimen in culture, giving little contrast. Staining specimens improves contrast but requires that cells be fixed (not alive), which can cause distortion or alteration of components.

27. Dark Field: Light is directed at an angle toward the specimen; a condenser lens transmits only light reflected off the specimen. The field is dark, and the specimen is light against the dark background.

29. Phase-contrast: Components of the microscope bring light waves out of phase, which produces differences in contrast and brightness when the light waves recombine.

30. The phase contrast microscope is widely used for examining such specimens as biological tissues. It is a type of light microscopy that enhances contrasts of transparent and colorless objects by influencing the optical path of light.

31. The phase contrast microscope uses the fact that the light passing trough a transparent part of the specimen travels slower and, due to this is shifted compared to the uninfluenced light. This difference in phase is not visible to the human eye. However, the change in phase can be increased to half a wavelength by a transparent phase- plate in the microscope and thereby causing a difference in brightness. This makes the transparent object shine out in contrast to its surroundings.

32. The phase contrast microscope is a vital instrument in biological and medical research. When dealing with transparent and colorless components in a cell, dyeing is an alternative but at the same time stops all processes in it. The phase contrast microscope has made it possible to study living cells, and cell division is an example of a process that has been examined in detail with it. The phase contrast microscope was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics, 1953.

34. Differential-interference contrast microscope: Out of phase light waves to produce differences in contrast are combined with two beams of light traveling close together, which create even more contrast, especially at the edges of structures.

36. Fluorescence: A set of filters transmits only light that is emitted by fluorescently stained molecules or tissues.

38. Confocal: Light from a laser is focused to a point and scanned across the specimen in two directions. Clear images of one plane of the specimen are produced,

39. While other planes of the specimen are excluded and do not blur the image. Fluorescent dyes and false coloring enhances the image.

41. Electron Microscopes Transmission Electron (TEM) A beam of electrons is passed through the specimen. Electrons that pass through are used to form an image. Areas of specimen that scatter electrons appear dark. False coloring enhances the image.

44. Scanning Electron (SEM) An electron beam is scanned across the surface of the specimen, and electrons are knocked off the surface.

45. Thus, the surface topography of the specimen determines the contrast and the content of the image. False coloring enhances the image.

47. Endomembrane System Endomembrane system -a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm -divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur 1. endoplasmic reticulum 2. Golgi apparatus 3. lysosomes

48. Endomembrane System Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) -membranes that create a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm -attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a rough appearance -synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes or plasma membrane

49. Endomembrane System Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) -relatively few ribosomes attached -functions: -synthesis of membrane lipids -calcium storage -detoxification of foreign substances

50. Endomembrane System

51. Golgi apparatus -flattened stacks of interconnected membranes -packaging and distribution of materials to different parts of the cell -synthesis of cell wall components

53. Endomembrane System Lysosomes -membrane bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes to break down macromolecules -destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis

55. Endomembrane System Microbodies -membrane bound vesicles -contain enzymes -not part of the endomembrane system -glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for converting fats to carbohydrates -peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and catalase

56. Endomembrane System Vacuoles -membrane-bound structures with various functions depending on the cell type There are different types of vacuoles: -central vacuole in plant cells -contractile vacuole of some protists -vacuoles for storage

57. Mitochondria -organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells -contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for transferring the energy within macromolecules to ATP -found in all types of eukaryotic cells

58. Mitochondria -surrounded by 2 membranes -smooth outer membrane -folded inner membrane with layers called cristae -matrix is within the inner membrane -intermembrane space is located between the two membranes -contain their own DNA

59. Mitochondria

60. Chloroplasts -organelles present in cells of plants and some other eukaryotes -contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis -surrounded by 2 membranes -thylakoids are membranous sacs within the inner membrane -grana are stacks of thylakoids

61. Chloroplasts

62. Mitochondria & Chloroplasts Endosymbiosis -proposal that eukaryotic organelles evolved through a symbiotic relationship -one cell engulfed a second cell and a symbiotic relationship developed -mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have evolved this way

63. Mitochondria & Chloroplasts Much evidence supports this endosymbiosis theory. Mitochondria and chloroplasts: -have 2 membranes -possess DNA and ribosomes -are about the size of a prokaryotic cell -divide by a process similar to bacteria

64. Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

65. Cytoskeleton -network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells -supports the shape of the cell -keeps organelles in fixed locations -helps move materials within the cell

66. Cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton fibers include -actin filaments – responsible for cellular contractions, crawling, “pinching” -microtubules – provide organization to the cell and move materials within the cell -intermediate filaments – provide structural stability

67. Cytoskeleton

68. Cell Movement Cell movement takes different forms. -Crawling is accomplished via actin filaments and the protein myosin. -Flagella undulate to move a cell. -Cilia can be arranged in rows on the surface of a eukaryotic cell to propel a cell forward.

69. Cell Movement The cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells have a similar structure: -9-2 structure: 9 pairs of microtubules surrounded by a 2 central microtubules -Cilia are usually more numerous than flagella on a cell.

70. Cell Movement

71. Extracellular Structures Extracellular structures include: -cell walls of plants, fungi, some protists -extracellular matrix surrounding animal cells

72. Extracellular Structures Cell walls -present surrounding the cells of plants, fungi, and some protists -the carbohydrates present in the cell wall vary depending on the cell type: -plant and protist cell walls - cellulose -fungal cell walls - chitin

73. Extracellular Structures Extracellular matrix (ECM) -surrounds animal cells -composed of glycoproteins and fibrous proteins such as collagen -may be connected to the cytoplasm via integrin proteins present in the plasma membrane

74. Extracellular Structures