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4. Page 4 Attention: Focusing awareness Attention: Focusing awareness Selective Attention: selection of input Selective Attention: selection of input – Filtering : screens out most potential stimuli while allowing selected info to pass through into conscious awareness – Cocktail Party Phenomenon : suggests that filters occur later – Stroop Effect: automatic processes can interfere w/ other tasks Green/Red – Next in Line Effect : when taking turns speaking you forget what is said right before your turn. – Serial Position Effect- When you remember info at the beginning & end but nothing in between

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6. Page 6 Incoming info processed at different levelsIncoming info processed at different levels Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels : Encoding levels : 1) Structural = shallow (physical structure) 2) Phonemic = intermediate (sounds like) 3) Semantic = deep (meaning)

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9. Page 9 Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding –Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Dual-coding theory = semantic + visual codes (2 >1) Dual-coding theory = semantic + visual codes (2 >1) –Easier to visualize concrete objects Self-Referent Encoding = making info personally meaningful Self-Referent Encoding = making info personally meaningful

10. Page 10 Information-processing theories Information-processing theories –Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term Sensory, Short-term, Long-term – Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage = incoming info passes through 2 temporary storage buffers 1) Sensory 2) Short Term then 3) Long Term

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12. Page 12 Brief preservation of information in original sensory form approximately ¼ secondBrief preservation of information in original sensory form approximately ¼ second George Sperling (1960): Classic experiment on visual sensory store George Sperling (1960): Classic experiment on visual sensory store – Echoic Memory: Auditory – Iconic Memory: Visual

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14. Page 14 Limited capacity – magical number 7 +/- 2 (George Miller) Limited capacity – magical number 7 +/- 2 (George Miller) – Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal – Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

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16. Page 16 Working Memory – (Baddeley) allows temporary storage & manipulation of the info necessary for complex cognitive tasks ( language comprehension, learning, reasoning ) It require the simultaneous storage& processing of info. Working Memory – (Baddeley) allows temporary storage & manipulation of the info necessary for complex cognitive tasks ( language comprehension, learning, reasoning ) It require the simultaneous storage& processing of info. – Executive control system: attentional-controlling system – Phonological rehearsal loop: stores & rehearses speech-based info & is necessary for the acquisition of both native & second-language vocabulary. – Visuospatial sketchpad: manipulates visual images – Episodic Buffer: integrates info before LTM

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18. Page 18 Long Term Memory: unlimited store holds memory over long periods of time, relatively permanent Long Term Memory: unlimited store holds memory over long periods of time, relatively permanent Flashbulb memories: vivid detailed memory of moments or events Flashbulb memories: vivid detailed memory of moments or events – Recall through hypnosis

19. Page 19 Clustering: remember similar items in group Clustering: remember similar items in group Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on commonalities to remember Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on commonalities to remember Schemas: organized cluster of knowledge based on previous experiences Schemas: organized cluster of knowledge based on previous experiences Semantic Networks: nodes (concepts) linked to related concepts Semantic Networks: nodes (concepts) linked to related concepts Connectionist Networks and PDP Models Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

20. Page 20 Conceptual Hierarchy Clustering Semantic NetworksConnectionist/PDP

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23. Page 23 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon : a failure in retrieval of something you know Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon : a failure in retrieval of something you know Recalling an eventRecalling an event – Retrieval cues: Hints – Context cues: remember when in the location Reconstructing memoriesReconstructing memories – Misinformation effect: Elizabeth Loftus

24. Page 24 Reconstructing memoriesReconstructing memories – Source monitoring: make attributions about where memories come from (Marcia Johnson) – Source monitoring error: mistake in the source – Reality Monitoring: deciding whether memories are based on external (actual events) or internal (thoughts or imagination)

25. Page 25 Retention – the proportion of material retainedRetention – the proportion of material retained – Recall: remember without cues – Recognition: remember with cues – Relearning: memorize again to measure how much time/practice before learning occurs Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: retention reduces after learning something compared to retention after learning something meaningful Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: retention reduces after learning something compared to retention after learning something meaningful

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28. Page 28 Ineffective Encoding: Ineffective Encoding: –Pseudo forgetting you can’t forget something you never learned Decay theory: memories fade with time (storage) Decay theory: memories fade with time (storage) Primacy effect: higher likelihood of remembering earlier info. (due to rehearsal) Primacy effect: higher likelihood of remembering earlier info. (due to rehearsal) Recency effect: higher likelihood of remembering last info. (b/c STM) Recency effect: higher likelihood of remembering last info. (b/c STM) Interference theory: forget b/c of competition from other materials Interference theory: forget b/c of competition from other materials – Proactive: can’t remember new info b/c of old info – Retroactive: can’t remember old info b/c of new info

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30. Page 30 Encoding Specificity: memories are linked to the context where they are created (learning a word by the way it sounds then sound would be the retrieval cue to help remember) Encoding Specificity: memories are linked to the context where they are created (learning a word by the way it sounds then sound would be the retrieval cue to help remember) Transfer-Appropriate Processing: memory will be best when the processes engaged in during encoding match those engaged in during retrieval Transfer-Appropriate Processing: memory will be best when the processes engaged in during encoding match those engaged in during retrieval Repression: motivated forgetting Repression: motivated forgetting

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32. Page 32 Biochemistry Biochemistry – Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systemsHormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesisProtein synthesis Neural circuitry Neural circuitry – Localized neural circuits Reusable pathways in the brainReusable pathways in the brain Long-term potentiation: when forming memories synapses strengthen pathways the more you remember Long-term potentiation: when forming memories synapses strengthen pathways the more you remember

33. Page 33 Anatomy Anatomy – Anterograde: cannot remember anything since the accident – Retrograde Amnesia: cannot remember anything before the accident – Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): hippocampus bind individual elements of specific memories. Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, CerebellumDentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

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36. Page 36 Implicit vs. Explicit Implicit vs. Explicit –Implicit: unintentional-Explicit: intentional Declarative vs. Procedural Declarative vs. Procedural –Declarative: Facts -Procedural: Actions Semantic vs. Episodic Semantic vs. Episodic –Semantic: general info –Episodic: Dated info Prospective vs. Retrospective Prospective vs. Retrospective –Prospective: future actions –Retrospective: previously learned info

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38. Page 38 Engage in adequate rehearsalEngage in adequate rehearsal Distribute practice and minimize interferenceDistribute practice and minimize interference Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processingEmphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing Organize informationOrganize information Use verbal mnemonicsUse verbal mnemonics Use visual mnemonicsUse visual mnemonics