1. Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies for Young People A New Agenda for Secondary Education International Conference on 60 Years of Korean Education Korean Education Achievements and Challenges Seoul, 14 June 2005 Ernesto Cuadra The World Bank

2. Secondary Education: Why now? After primary education, What? Surging demand driven by EFA. “Youth-quake” The largest ever cohort of young people. A global risk or opportunity? Need to build/harness their skills Primary education is not enough Globalization and knowledge society present new challenges to human capital development Demand for secondary education is soaring Confluence of 3 forces:

3. Political Tensions While there are strong national and international lobbies for primary or tertiary, there are no such thing for secondary education. Reaching political consensus for secondary expansion and reform is much more difficult than for primary or tertiary education. As a result, policy choices are more ambiguous and complex.

4. Secondary Education As a Policy Paradox Terminal - Preparatory. Compulsory - Postcompulsory Uniform-diverse Individual needs and interests - Societal/Labor market needs Integrate students and offset disadvantages – Select and Screen according to academic ability Common curriculum for all - Specialized curriculum for some

5. Demands for Job-Skills is Changing Rapidly Source: Autor, Levy, and Murnane (2003) “The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration,” Quarterly Journal of Economics.

6. The Challenge is to Build up Meta-cognitive Capital and Creative Capital (i)  Ability to integrate formal and informal learning, declarative knowledge (or knowing that) and procedural knowledge (or know-how)  Ability to access, select and evaluate knowledge in an information-soaked world  Ability to develop and apply several forms of intelligence, beyond strictly cognitive factors  Ability to work and learn effectively and in teams

7. The Challenge is to Build up Meta-cognitive Capital and Creative Capital (ii)  Ability to create, transpose and transfer knowledge  Ability to cope with ambiguous situations, unpredictable problems and unforeseeable circumstances  Ability to cope with multiple careers, learning how to locate oneself in a job market, choose and fashion the relevant education and training Learning to Think and Learning to Learn

8. How Systems are Responding Overall Trends in Curriculum Reform (i) Deferring selection and specialization of pupils Ability grouping, tracking and streaming may raise the attainment of higher achievers at the expense of low achievers (Ireson and Hallam), which, apart from equity concerns, also raises worries about the loss of human and social capital

9. How Systems are Responding Overall Trends in Curriculum Reform (ii) Increasing the status recognition of traditional vocational education, in part by pushing it to the upper secondary level and then to post-secondary level. Departing from the disciplinary tradition of curriculum design and development, thus moving to broader curriculum areas, skill centered-approaches, etc., which amount to a more relevant and inclusive secondary curriculum.

10. Secondary Education Curriculum Choices and Trade-offs SCENARIO 1 Highly specialized (tracking starts at 11 or 12) Highly selective (examination at the age of 11-12 resulting in the attendance to different type of school) Vocational education a main option in lower secondary Emphasis on traditional disciplines in academic tracks Job-preparation and practice in the vocational track

11. Secondary Education Curriculum Choices and Trade-offs SCENARIO 2 Deferring specialization and selection until the end of lower secondary System of elective subjects is the only device to introduce some internal differentiation Vocational education is pushed to the upper secondary level Introducing vocational elements in the general common curriculum Cross-curricular issues and interdisciplinary approaches are considered, but traditional areas continue to frame the secondary curriculum

12. Secondary Education Curriculum Choices and Trade-offs SCENARIO 3 Deferring specialization and selection until the end of upper secondary school Elective system and homogeneous student grouping form the internal system of selection within a given high-school Vocational education is a fully pos-secondary enterprise Vocational elements are built in the academic curriculum to a greater and greater extent Apart from the Languages and Mathematics, the rest of the curriculum departs from the disciplinary tradition, so that skills-based, project-based and cross-curricular alternatives are widespread

13. The Shifting – and Fading – Frontier Between General and Vocational Curricula The issue nowadays is not so much how to provide vocational skills but how to add basic vocational content to the general curriculum Emphasis given on the applied dimension of all sorts of knowledge, beginning with the most traditional curriculum areas Introducing greater diversity by diversifying upper secondary education through the development of multi-faceted programs offering alternative pathways for education and training

16. OECD Average

17. Is Sustainable Expansion of Secondary Education Feasible? Hong-Kong, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Finland, demonstrate that it is possible And it can be done in a short period of time. Between 1990 and 2000 these countries increased the average years of schooling by more than 4.5 years Finland and Korea did it, by decreasing the fraction of the adult population with only primary education and increasing the opportunities for all to attend secondary education

18. Finland and Korea Balanced Expansion of Educational Attainment

19. Colombia and Bangladesh Unbalanced Expansion of Educational Attainment

20. Financial Gaps and Imbalances Fast- growing economies Countries succeeding in expanding secondary enrollment Slow- growing economies Countries not succeeding in expanding secondary enrollment Per-student spending on secondary students as a ratio of per- student spending on primary students 1.4 2.22.6 Per-student spending on tertiary students as a ratio of per-student spending on secondary students 3.03.2 11.09.3

21. Access and Quality The Twin Challenge Develop a mass system of secondary education, with quality and equity Secondary education systems must generate effective demand among youth Improve quality, defined as different institutional responses to an increasingly diverse demand

22. Access and Quality are not just twin goals but Siamese Twins No country has expanded secondary education without creating the public opinion perception of a quality drop. Unchecked expansion can lead to increased inequality, particularly gender and ethnic inequality.

23. And The Role of the State is More Important than Ever Mobilizing financial resources. ensuring political consensus and providing technical leadership and support. Creating conditions for alternative providers Targeting the poor and excluded groups. Monitoring and evaluating service delivery and system quality.

24. Looking Ahead: 3 Key Challenges Minimizing the inter-country/inter- regional education gap Sustainable financing of the expansion Address youth needs of relevant secondary education experiences