1. T & D PRESENTATION
BY MEHWISH AMJAD(3285)

2. COMPONENT DISPLAY THEORY
Component Display Theory (CDT) is proposed by M. D. Merrill.
This theory classifies learning along two dimensions:
(i) content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles) and
(ii) performance (remembering, using, generalities).

3. =>The theory specifies four primary presentation forms:
rules (expository presentation of a generality),
examples (expository presentation of instances),
recall (inquisitory generality) and
practice (inquisitory instance).
=>Secondary presentation forms include: prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, and feedback

4. PRINCIPLES
Instruction will be more effective if all three primary performance forms (remember, use, generality) are present.
Primary forms can be presented by either an explanatory or inquisitory learning strategy
The sequence of primary forms is not critical provided they are all present.
Students should be given control over the number of instances or practice items they receive

5. CONDITIONS OF LEARNING THEORY
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning and each different type requires different types of instruction (internal and external). The five major categories of learning are: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

6. PRINCIPLES
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.

7. CONNECTIONISM THEORY
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.

8. Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws:
(1) law of effect
(2) law of readiness
(3) law of exercise -

9. 1)LAW OF EFFECT–
Responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation,
(2)LAW OF READINESS–
A series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked,

10. (3)LAW OF EXERCISE–
Connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.

11. PRINCIPLES
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

12. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
This theory proposed that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.
The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models)

13. Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
predisposition towards learning,
the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner,
the most effective sequences in which to present material, and
the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.

14. PRINCIPLES
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

15. CONTIGUITY THEORY
Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that "a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement".
In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in learning since they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made.

16. PRINCIPLES
1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things).
2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must present very specific tasks.
3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response.
4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that will be associated.

17. CONVERSATION THEORY
The Conversation Theory developed by G. Pask and attempts to explain learning in both living organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that learning occurs through conversations about a subject matter which serve to make knowledge explicit.
Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels:

18. natural language (general discussion),
object languages (for discussing the subject matter),
Meta languages (for talking about learning/language).

19. PRINCIPLES
1. To learn a subject matter, students must learn the relationships among the concepts.
2. Explicit explanation or manipulation of the subject matter facilitates understanding (e.g., use of teachback technique).
3. Individual's differ in their preferred manner of learning relationships (serialists versus holists).

20. CRITERIAN REFERENCED INSTRUCTION THEORY
The Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) framework developed by Robert Mager is a comprehensive set of methods for the design and delivery of training programs. Some of the critical aspects include:
(1) goal/task analysis
(2) performance objectives
(3) criterion referenced testing
4) development of learning modules tied to specific objectives.

21. PRINCIPLES
Instructional objectives are derived from job performance and reflect the competencies (knowledge/skills) that need to be learned.
Students study and practice only those skills not yet mastered to the level required by the objectives.
Students are given opportunities to practice each objective and obtain feedback about the quality of their performance.

22. Students should receive repeated practice in skills that are used often or are difficult to learn.
Students are free to sequence their own instruction within the constraints imposed by the pre-requisites and progress is controlled by their own competence (mastery of objectives).

23. DOUBLE LOOP LEARNING THEORY
Argyris (1976) proposes double loop learning theory which pertains to learning to change underlying values and assumptions.
It is based upon a "theory of action“. An important aspect of the theory is the distinction between an individual's espoused theory and their "theory-in-use" & bringing these two into congruence is a primary concern of double loop learning.

24. PRINCIPLES
Effective problem-solving about interpersonal or technical issues requires frequent public testing of theories-in-use.
Double loop learning requires learning situations in which participants can examine and experiment with their theories of action.

25. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
This theory was proposed by Hull, & he developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S.
In other behavior theories, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning. However, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior

26. PRINCIPLES Drive is essential in order for responses to occur
Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur
Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur
Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need

27. DUAL CODING THEORY
The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing.
Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events

28. Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing:
(1) representational
(2) referential &
(3) associative processing

29. PRINCIPLES
Recall/recognition is enhanced by presenting information in both visual and verbal form.