1. ACM 4063 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Lecture 7

2. Content analysis (CA)  A research technique for making references by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics within a text  A method for studying mass mediated and public messages  The main goal of CA is to describe the characteristics of messages embedded in public and mediated text

3.  Any systematic procedure devised to examine the content of recorded information (Walizer and Wienir (1978)  A research technique for making replicable and valid references from data to their context (Krippendorf, 1980)  A method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for a purpose of measuring variables (Kerlinger, (1986)

4.  Sometimes regarded as true communication research as it involves directly with media, media contents and messages – texts, photos, pictures, scenes, advertisements, etc.  CA involves studying information or materials already existed, not bounded by structured questionnaire, and can handle massive data with the help of computers

5. Advantages of CA  It can be unobtrusive – no interaction of invasion of privacy  It can deal with large volumes of material – many years of records, newspapers TV programs, etc  It is systematic – structured procedures and inline with the requirement of scientific method  It can corroborate with other evaluation methods – to value add or support the other research findings

6. Limitations of CA  The materials must be complete  Need coders to be trained  CA alone cannot serve as a basis for making statements about the effects on the content on an audience  The findings are limited to the framework of the categories and definitions used in the analysis  Lack of messages to be studied relevant to research  Frequently time consuming and expensive

7. Steps in CA: - formulate the research question - define the population in question - select an appropriate sample from population - select and define unit of analysis - construct the categories of content to be analyzed - establish a quantification system (coding form/sheet) - train coders and conduct pilot study - code the content according to established definition - analyze the collected data - draw conclusions and search for indications

8. Formulate the research question  Based on existing theory, from review of literature or practical problems faced by the public  What is the objective? Normally to summarize or describe the content of written materials, the attitudes or perception of its writer, or its potential effects on its audience  Good research question would provide clear guide on conducting CA

9. Define the population in question  What is the main source of data or media that is going to be studied?  Data availability? Any recorded materials as long as the information is available to be reanalyzed for reliability checks- assess quality  For example newspapers or magazines for how many years? TV programs for how many seasons? Chat interaction for how many days?

10. Select an appropriate sample  It is impossible to study the daily newspapers for ten years or watch every TV programs for several years, thus sampling is conducted  To do sampling the population must be complete  If it is an event, for example General Election, your may decides the time before the election and after the election to study the news coverage – purposive sampling  If it is for a long time, then composite week for each month in the sample (Monday from one month, Tuesday from another month, etc until all 7 days are completed)

11.  As other sampling methods, the sample must be representative  There must be adequate sample size to be credible  For composite or constructed week it is possible to do probability sampling  For newspaper, it is possible to study specific part of the paper, e.g. front page only, editorial column, letter to the editor, etc  For TV, it is possible to study during prime time only

12. Select and define unit of analysis  The smallest element of CA and the most important  In written content, the unit of analysis might be: - a single word - a sentence - a paragraph - an entire article or story - a symbol - a theme

13.  In TV, video and film, the unit of analysis can be: - character - act - scene - time (seconds) - the entire program or film  Specific rules and definitions are required for determining the unit of analysis to ensure closer agreement between coders

14. Construct the categories of CA  At the heart of CA is the category system used to classify media content  This is to provide structure for grouping recording unit and help in systematic analysis  There is standard requirements that categories should meet  Each category must be clearly explained so that the coders can do the work smoothly

15.  Requirement for content categories: - categories should be exhaustive - categories should be mutually exclusive - categories should be independent - categories can be constructed through groupings, scales and matrices  The number of categories depends on the research questions and the research objectives

16.  Categories can be used to measure three quantification levels – space, frequency and intensity  These methods allow researcher to compare relative strength of the respective issues and get indication of its value or importance

17. Establish a quantification system  Normally nominal, interval and ration level of measurement are used  At nominal level count the frequency of occurrence of the unit of analysis  At the interval level it is possible to develop scales for coders to use to rate certain attributes  At the ratio level, measurement in mass media research are generally applied to space (print media) and time (electronic media)

18.  In print media, column-inch measurement are commonly used to analyze news, editorials, advertisements  In TV and radio, the number of commercial minutes, the time and types of programs etc  It is also taken into consideration where the news are printed (front page or inside), when the story is aired (prime time, or lead news) as part of the ‘meaning’ in CA

19.  Scales provide for the rank ordering of information such as “support, uncommitted, oppose”  Matrices are useful formats when researcher seeks more information about issues than simply whether they are present or absent

20. Train coders and conduct pilot study  As the categories developed are specific to the CA, training must be given to coders  Coders must achieve an acceptable level of agreement called ‘inter-coder reliability’ before the actual data collection can be carried out.  The coders must understand and familiar with unit of analysis and the content categories developed  The coders must undergo pilot study to familiarized themselves with what they are supposed to do

21.  Pre-testing must be conducted before actual data collection  Involves coding a small portion of the material to be analyzed or some other similar materials  Test and revise the coding categories and instructions  The outcomes of pre-test should make the categories clearly specified, coding instructions are adequate, and coders are suitable for the job

22.  Inter-coder reliability should be calculated during pre-testing and coding should begin when high inter-coder reliability is achieved (80 –90 % agreement is acceptable)  A check of reliability tells researchers the extend to which a measuring procedure can produce the same results in repeated trials  In CA, this means determining the similarity with which two or more people categorize the same material – independent coder

23. Code the content accordingly  The entire material for CA must be already available and in good quality  Coders are competence to conduct the CA  Coders know which news of part of TV programs to be taken as sample in the study or not  For written media, key words in the title, headline, or the first paragraph or photograph of the news became the basis for inclusion in the study or not  Commonly coding sheets are prepared for this

24.  Define the recording units including procedures for identifying them  Descriptions of the variables and categories  Outline the cognitive procedures used in placing data in categories  Instructions for using and administering data sheet or coding sheet

25.  The coders must count the total news available in the sample so that comparison can be made later  For TV, the presence of ‘variable’ or category in the unit analysis is recorded  Coders must record all scenes and count the scenes that content the element being studied  Coders may have to read the news or replay the recorded TV programs several times in conducting CA

26. Analyze the collected data  Use the data recorded in coding or data sheet  Summarize the coded data  Discovering patterns and relationships within the data  Describing the results  Relating the results to data obtained from other methods or situations or from assessing the validity of the analysis

27.  Use descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, proportions to present the results or findings, compare results across categories, and note changes over times  Use specific example from data to support your claim  The report should provide clear idea what was done, why it was done, and why the results provide a sound basis for conclusions and recommendations

28. Draw conclusions  Based on the outcome of the analysis  State the conclusion as it answers the research questions and research objectives  If there is unexpected results give plausible explanation  Describe what is the main outcome of the study  Give suggestions for further study or application by the relevant authority

29.  A CA reports should consist: - the study objectives, and justification of the choice of data, methods, and design - a description of the procedures including sampling, units of analysis, coding instructions, results of inter-coders reliability test, procedures for data handling and analysis, and efforts at validating the procedures, and - the findings and their significance contribution