1. Patterns of Subsistence
(Foragers, agricultural and pastoral societies)
ANT SLCC. Lolita Nikolova, Ph.D. (Haviland et al. 2005, Chapter 6)
Some subsistence economies:
Foraging
Agriculture
Mixed
Pastoralism
Cultural type
Society type
Adaptation
Culture area

2. Foraging societies
Agricultural societies
Societies with mixed economies
Nomadic societies
Pre-industrial societies
Industrial societies
Post-Industrial societies (Technological)
Resources
Labor
Adaptation
Reproduction and production of social relationships and culture
Household and communities (lineage, village, cities)
Economies

3. Modes of Distributing Goods
Resources
Resources used to produce goods and services include:
Raw materials
Labor
Technology
Neolithic revolution The profound culture change associated with the early domestication of plants and animals.
Modes of Distributing Goods
Reciprocity
Redistribution
Market exchange

4. Adaptation Interaction between
changes an organism makes in its environment
changes the environment makes in the organism.

5. Patterns of Labor Three Patterns of Work by Gender
Every society has a division of labor by gender and age.
This is an elaboration of patterns found among monkeys and apes.
Division by gender makes learning more efficient.
Division by age provides sufficient time to developing skills.
Three Patterns of Work by Gender
Flexible/integrated pattern
Rigid segregation pattern
Dual sex pattern

6. culture area A geographic region in which a number of different societies follow similar patterns of life.
cultural adaptation The process organisms undergo to achieve a beneficial adjustment to an available environment and the result of that process—the characteristics of organisms that fit them to the particular environmental conditions in which they are found.

7. culture type The view of a culture in terms of the relation of its particular technology to the environment exploited by that technology.
culture core The features of a culture that play a part in matters relating to the society’s way of making a living.

8. food foraging Hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.
carrying capacity The number of people who can be supported by the available resources at a given level of technology.
density of social relations Roughly, the number and intensity of interactions among the members of a camp or other residential unit.

9. Food Foraging Life: Characteristics
Move about a great deal.
Small size of local groups.
Populations stabilize at numbers well below the carrying capacity of their land.
Egalitarian, populations have few possessions and share what they have.

10. Food Foraging: Impact on Society
Three elements of human organization:
Division of labor by gender.
Food sharing.
The camp as the center of daily activity and the place where food is shared.

11. convergent evolution In cultural evolution, the development of similar adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were quite different.
parallel evolution In cultural evolution, the development of similar adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were similar.

12. intensive agriculture Crop cultivation using technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals.
pastoralism Breeding and managing of herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, llamas, or camels.

13. Transition to Food Production
Began about 11,000 to 9,000 y.a.
Probably the result of increased management of wild food resources.
Resulted in the development of permanent settlements as people practiced horticulture using simple hand tools.

14. Horticulture Cultivation of crops using hand tools such as digging sticks.
swidden farming An extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops then planted amongst the ashes.

15. Pastoralism
Subsistence that relies on raising herds of domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
Pastoralists are usually nomadic.
transhumance Pattern of strict seasonal movement between different environmental zones.

16. Development of Cities
Cities developed as intensified agricultural techniques created a surplus.
Individuals were free to specialize full-time in other activities.
Preindustrial cities The kinds of urban settlements that are characteristic of nonindustrial civilizations.

17. Social Structure of Cities
Development of cities resulted in increased social stratification.
People are ranked according to gender, the work they do, and the family they are born into.
Social relationships grow more formal and centralized.

18. Cultural ecology The study of the interaction of specific human cultures with their environment.
Ecosystem A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the physical environment and the organisms living within it.

19. Procedures for Cultural Ecology
Analyze the interrelationship of a culture’s technology and its environment.
Analyze the patterns of behavior associated with a culture’s technology.
Determine the relation between those behavior patterns and the rest of the cultural system.

20. Progress The notion that humans are moving forward to a higher, more advanced stage in their development toward perfection.