2. What is Personality? Personality includes the important differences in the way people behave Personality includes the consistent way in which people behave. Personality is defined as distinctive, unique, and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting

3. Personality Personality is an interaction between biology and environment Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions * Genetic studies suggest inheritability of personality characteristics * Other studies suggest learned components of personality

4. PHRENOLOGY – The study of personality based on the distinctive shapes of a skull. Phrenology is one of the earliest attempts to explain personality.

5. Some people believe in the value of phrenology today however other theories of personality are now more accepted.

6. Four Theories of Personality 1. Trait 2. Psychoanalytic 3. Humanistic 4. Behaviorism and Socio-Cognitive

7. TRAIT THEORIES Trait Theorists describe personality according to the traits (characteristics) that people display on a consistent basis. All Trait Theorists have two fundamental beliefs: 1. All people possess all traits 2. All traits can be quantified

8. The First Trait Theory UNSTABLE STABLE choleric melancholic phlegmaticsanguine INTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED Moody Anxious Rigid Sober Pessimistic Reserved Unsociable Quiet Sociable Outgoing Talkative Responsive Easygoing Lively Carefree Leadership Passive Careful Thoughtful Peaceful Controlled Reliable Even-tempered Calm Touchy Restless Aggressive Excitable Changeable Impulsive Optimistic Active Hans Eysenck (1916- 1997) theorized that introverted people share certain traits, while extraverted people share the opposite traits. His Dimensions of Personality theory includes: Stability vs. Instability, Extraversion vs. Introversion, and Psychoticism. (Cool and calm) (Easily Irritable) (Somber and Sad) (Cheerful and Confident)

9. Personality Traits Gordon Allport (1897-1997)identified about4500 traits that all people possess and divided them into two groups: Common Traits – those that apply to everyone Individual Traits – those that apply to a specific person. The individual traits are: 1. Cardinal Trait – a trait that is so strong it almost identifies the person. 2. Central Trait – a trait that makes us predictable. 3. Secondary Trait – our preferences, such as for food or music. Because secondary traits change from time to time they are the least important to our personality.

10. Personality Traits Raymond Cattell identified personality according to a mathematical technique called factor analysis. It describes the extent to which different personality variables are related. Using factor analysis Cattell theorized that there are 16 source traits – traits that are at the core of personality. By measuring these traits, psychologists could predict people’s behavior in certain situations.

11. Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

12. The Big “5” All trait theorists have devised a number of ways to measure personality. Each involves a different number of traits or factors. However all trait psychologists have shown that five traits appear repeatedly in their studies. Those five traits are called “The Big 5”.

13. Evaluating Trait Theory “The Big 5” Trait Theory model is able to describe personality: * Based on cross-cultural human studies that find good agreement for the Big 5 model in many cultures * Since there appears to be highly correlated behaviors not only in adulthood, but also in childhood and even late preschoolers Criticisms of trait theory include: 2. Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop 1. The difficulty of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits

14. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed Psychoanalytic theory, to explain personality on the basis of unconscious forces affecting behavior. Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our personality develops Defense Mechanisms to protect against anxiety Freud argued that Personality is made up of many parts, some of which are unconscious (below our level of awareness) He stated that we are unaware of some aspects of our mental states because we have different Levels of Consciousness

15. The Construct of the Mind 1. Id – the part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts, and repressed material. It operates on the “pleasure principle”. 3. Ego – the part of personality that is in touch with reality and strives to meet the demands of the id and the superego in socially acceptable ways. It operates on the “reality principle”. 2. Superego – the part of personality that is the source of conscience and counteracts the socially undersirable impulses of the id. It contains values and ideals.

16. Freudian Theory Freud proposed that there are three Levels of Consciousness 3. Unconscious Wishes, feelings, impulses that lies beyond awareness It is the location of the Id and some aspects of the Superego 2. Preconscious Memories etc. that can be recalled 1. Conscious What we’re aware of It is the location of the Ego and some aspects of the Superego

17. Freudian Theory s Anxiety occurs when there is a conflict between the Id and the Superego and as a result the Ego feels threatened. The ego deals with the problem through: coping strategies by dealing with the problem directly or through the use of Defense Mechanisms Impulses from the id threaten to get out of control and the ego perceives danger from the environment

18. Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious part of a person’s personality (ego) from developing anxiety. Some examples are: Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the unconscious Denial: person refuses to recognize reality Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments

19. Defense Mechanisms (cont.) Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original object of impulse Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite state Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideas

20. Assessing the Unconscious Projective Tests used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT tests) How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli

21. Assessing the Unconscious -- Rorschach Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach Rorschach

22. Assessing the Unconscious-- Rorschach used to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

28. Assessing the Unconscious-- TAT Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) people express their inner motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

31. PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS Alfred Adler (1870-1937) believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desire to overcome their feelings of inferiority. He believed that everyone struggles with inferiority. A person who continually tries to compensate for his weakness and avoid feelings of inadequacy has an inferiority complex.

32. PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS Alfred Adler believed people are motivated by social interest and develop an agreeable lifestyle in order to feel superior. Adler also believed that birth order greatly affects personality. First Born - Privileged until Dethroned Second Born - In shadow of 1st Born  inferiority, restlessness Youngest - Pampered, dependent Only Child - Higher intellect, timid, passive, & withdrawn

33. PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS Archetypes transcend cultures and can be found in cultural myths, religious beliefs, and symbols separated by time. Archetypes influence our thoughts and feelings and help us build the foundation of our personalities. Carl Jung (1875-1961) worked with Freud but disagreed with Freud in some ways. He believed that all people have a: Personal Unconscious: unique for each person (similar to Freud’s idea of the unconscious) Collective Unconscious: a storehouse of instincts, urges, and memories for all humanity. These inherited, universal ideas are called archetypes.

34. HUMANISM THEORY Humanism rejects the biological determinism and irrational unconscious forces of the Psychoanalytics Humanistic personality theories emphasize personal growth and the achievement of maximum potential by each unique individual. Humanism views each person as basically good and with freedom in making choices. People are striving for self- fulfillment. Humanism argues that people carry a perception of themselves and of the world. The goal for a humanist is to develop/promote a positive self-concept.

35. Humanistic Perspectives Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believes the goal of all people is to be “fully- functioning”. To be fully-functioning we need to rid ourselves of the conflict between our own self-image and what we believe other people see in us.

36. Carl Rogers Humanistic Theories Our goal is to receive unconditional positive regard – Having other people value you for who your are therefore you develop a positive self image and become fully-functioning. Each person has a self – your own image that is acquired over the years by observing how other people react to you. Each person strives for positive regard – seeing yourself in a positive light as a result of feedback received from interaction with others. Sometimes a positive regard is only reached by having conditions of worth placed upon you. (Conditions you must meet in order to be regarded positively)

37. Abraham Maslow Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) emphasized the basic goodness of human nature. He also believed that people try to become the best that they can become – to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization).

38. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People They are realistically oriented They accept themselves, other people, and the natural world for what they are They have a great deal of spontaneity They are problem-centered rather than self-centered. They have an air of detachment and a need for privacy They are autonomous Their appreciation of people and things is fresh, not stereotyped

39. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People (continued) Most have had profound mystical or spiritual experiences, although not necessarily religious in character They identify with humanity They have a few deep intimate relationships rather than many superficial relationships They do not confuse means with ends They are creative and resist conformity

40. Maslow believed that to become self-actualized all people must first satisfy different levels of needs that dominate our thoughts and behaviors. His Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates the different levels.

41. BEHAVIORISM THEORY Behaviorists believe that as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they acquire different behaviors and, hence, different personalities. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) studied how Contingencies of Reinforcement (the occurrence of rewards or punishments following particular behaviors) shaped behavior and therefore personality.

42. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Social Cognitive theorists believe that personality is acquired by a combination of reinforcement and observational learning. Albert Bandura (1925 - )believed that people direct their own behavior by their choice of models. (You are more likely to learn new behaviors from friends of your own choosing than from friends your parents choose for you.)

43. Bandura (continued) Bandura promoted Reciprocal Determinism – the interaction of the observer, the behavior of the individual being observed, and the environment in which the behavior occurs. The goal of our behavior is self-efficacy – our own view of our ability to succeed - concerning any decision we make. If our outcome expectations are met we will make similar decisions on future similar situations.

44. WHICH THEORY DO YOU BELIEVE IS CORRECT? TRAIT THEORY – All people possess all traits and all traits can be measured PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY – Unconscious forces motivate our behavior and personality is determined by early childhood experiences HUMANISM THEORY – People are driven toward self- actualization BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - People learn through the consequences of their behavior and from role models