1. Motivation and Emotion Chapter 10 1

2. Motivation A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. 2 Aron Ralston 127 Hrs

3. 3 Motivation Theories Instinct Theory (Evol. Theory): we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. Instincts = Species fixed patterns that are not learned But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors.

4. 4 Drive Reduction Theory Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS. Want to maintain homeostasis. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. Primary versus Secondary drives

5. Incentive 5 Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells baking cookies (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

6. 6 Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal not eliminate it. Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal.

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8. 8 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow Motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.needs We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first. Castaway Fire

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs sequence of needs basic needs must be met before higher needs can be satisfied self-actualization (motivation to develop to our fullest potential)

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

11. Self-Determination Theory Three Basic Organismic Needs 1. competence self-efficacy, mastery, expectations for success 2. relatedness warm relations with others, need to belong 3. autonomy independence and self-reliance

12. Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation organismic needs + enjoyability key to achievement Extrinsic Motivation incentives (rewards, punishments) Does extrinsic motivation undermine intrinsic motivation?

13. 13 Motivation of HUNGER

14. Hunger Videos Why we feel hungry https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eog8dx2ynoc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6zVMWoBtl4 bypass https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqKW-FMDUTQ

15. 15 Biological Basis of Hunger Hunger does NOT only come from our stomach. It comes from our… Brain Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain Still hungry w/o stomach What part of the brain? The Hypothalamus Alive

16. 16 Body Chemistry Glucose The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat. Glucose in the blood monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines Send signals to the hypothalamus When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.

17. Brain Processes The lateral hypothalamus is involved in stimulating eating. If the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed, even a starving animal will show no interest in food. The ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating. Research has shown that when this part of the brain is stimulated, the animal will stop eating. When the area is destroyed, the animal eats profusely and quickly becomes obese.

18. 18 Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus When stimulated it makes you hungry. When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. Ventromedial Hypothalamus When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again.

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21. Hypothalamus & Hormones HormoneTissueResponse OrexinHypothalamusIncreases hunger GhrelinStomachIncreases hunger InsulinPancreasIncreases hunger LeptinFat cellsDecreases hunger PPYDigestive tractDecreases hunger 21 The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger. Alive

22. 22 Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat (Genetic). Wants to maintain a stable weight. Body naturally activates the lateral when you diet and activates the ventromedial when you start to gain weight. Leptin theory

23. 23 Culture and Hunger Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for! Ex: Hot Climates = More Spices

24. 24 Criadillas- bull testicles. Mice Wine Dog Fried Frog Legs

25. 25 Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food). Anorexia Nervosa Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight. Starve See themselves as fat. Vast majority are women. 25

26. Disordered Eating Anorexia Nervosa relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation more common among females main characteristics less than 85% of normal weight unsupported fear of gaining weight distorted body image amenorrhea medical dangers and mortality

27. Disordered Eating Bulimia Nervosa binge-and-purge more common among females preoccupied with food fearful, depressed, anxious, shame medical dangers

28. Disordered Eating Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia sociocultural media images family interactions biological genetics serotonin regulation neurological effects of dieting, binging, purging

29. Disordered Eating Binge Eating Disorder recurrent episodes of compulsively eating large amounts of food despite not being hungry, eat quickly to point of discomfort 8% of the obese have BED causes include biological factors (genetics, dopamine, stress)

30. 30 Obesity Severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues. Mostly eating habits but some people are predisposed towards obesity. Social & Cultural Effects 30 Click on the picture. Obesity

31. 31 Body Mass Index Body Mass Index (BMI) 31 Obesity in children increases their risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer, thus shortening their life- expectancy.

32. 32 Physiology of Obesity Fat Cells: There are 30-40 billion fat cells in the body. These cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an obese individual (Sjöstrum, 1980). 32

33. 33 Genetic Factor 33 Identical twin studies reveal that body weight has a genetic basis. The obese mouse on the left has a defective gene for the hormone leptin. The mouse on the right shedded 40% of its weight when injected with leptin. Courtesy of John Soltis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY

34. 34 Activity 34 Lack of exercise is a major contributor to obesity. Just watching TV for two hours resulted in a 23% increase of weight when other factors were controlled (Hu & others, 2003).

35. 35 Food Consumption 35 Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased.weight gain

36. 2000 Obesity Trends* Among U.S. Adults BRFSS, 1990, 2000, 2010 (*BMI 30, or about 30 lbs. overweight for 5’4” person) 2010 1990 No Data <10% 10%–14% 15%–19% 20%–24% 25%–29% ≥30% (Fat Suit Vids – 1, 2, 3)123

37. 37 Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..) Intrinsic Motivators Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivators Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..) Works well in the short run.

38. 38 Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators. Theory X Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment. Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated. Interested in Maslow’s lower needs. Theory Y Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive. Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

39. Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Applies psychological principles to the workplace. 39 1.Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers. 2.Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. 3.Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.

40. When Motives Conflict Approach-Approach Conflict – 2 desirable outcomes conflict – must make choice Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Must choose b/w 2 unattractive outcomes Approach-Avoidance Conflict – 1 event has both attractive & unattractive features Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts 40

41. 41 Which approach to achievement motivation is this?

42. Self Regulation Self regulation is the process by which an organism controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives. Goal Setting specific moderately challenging long term purpose short term accomplishment

43. Resisting Temptation Delay of Gratification putting off pleasurable experience knowing there will be future payoff distraction helps us resist temptation

44. Emotion a feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression physiological arousal Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System → arouses Parasympathetic Nervous System → calms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VwojuSNnEE

45. 45 Emotion Our body’s adaptive response Willam James and Carl Lange came up with the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. We feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress. The body changes and our mind recognizes the feeling. Physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.

46. Autonomic Nervous System

47. Measuring Arousal skin conductance level polygraph heart rate, breathing, SCL neutral v. target questions results do not reliably detect deception Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988) Restricts use of tests (Courts do no accept) fMRI may better detect deception

48. Measuring Arousal One aspect of arousal is the skin conductance level (SCL), which is a rise in the skin’s electrical conductivity when sweat gland activity increases. The measurement of this electrical activity provides an index of arousal which has been used in studies of emotion. Another measure of arousal is a polygraph test, which is used in trying to determine if someone is lying. It monitors changes in the body such as heart rate, breathing, and electrodermal response.

49. Theories of Emotion The James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states that are triggered by stimuli in the environment. Emotion occurs after the physiological reaction. The Cannon-Bard theory states that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

50. Theories of Emotion

51. Limbic System: Amygdala fear system: two pathways thalamus ↔ amygdala sensory cortex persistence of emotional memories Cerebral Hemispheres left hemisphere: approach-related emotions right hemisphere: withdrawal-related emotions Emotion and the Brain

52. Brain Pathways of Fear

53. Neural Circuits and Neurotransmitters One of the negative emotions in which the amygdala plays a central role is fear. When the amygdala detects the presence of danger, it steps up its activity, commanding the brain’s resources in an effort to protect the individual from harm. There are two pathways for fear. One is a more direct pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala. The direct pathway does not give specific details about the stimulus, but it is faster. The second is a more indirect pathway that goes from the thalamus through the sensory cortex to the amygdala. The amygdala is also involved in emotional memories, which is important because once an individual has experienced something as dangerous it will not be forgotten.

54. Research has also recently shown that the cerebral hemispheres are involved in emotions. Approach-related emotions such as happiness are more strongly connected with activity in the left hemisphere, while withdrawal-related emotions such as disgust are more strongly connected with activity in the right hemisphere. Neurotransmitters such as endorphins and dopamine are involved in positive emotions such as happiness. Norepinephrine is involved in regulating arousal. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DosNfXx-rZY

55. Two-Factor Theory of Emotion The two-factor theory of emotion has two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. Misinterpreted arousal intensifies emotional experiences.

56. 56 Two-Factor Theory of EmotionTheory of Emotion Stanley Schachter explains emotions more completely that the other two theories. They happen at the same time but… People who are already physiologically aroused experience more intense emotions than unaroused people when both groups are exposed to the same stimuli. Biology and Cognition interact with each other to increase the experience. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label

57. The Primacy Debate: Cognition or Emotion? In the 1980s and 1990s there was a debate between Richard Lazarus and Robert Zajonc about which occurred first, the thinking or the emotion. Lazarus argued for the primacy effect, saying that cognitive activity was a precondition for emotion. Zajonc, on the other hand, argued that emotions are primary and an individual’s thoughts are the result of the emotions. Both are essentially correct in that some emotions are instantaneous and do not involve cognitive appraisal, whereas others do. This is supported by the earlier description of direct and indirect brain pathways.

58. Emotions and Autonomic Nervous System  During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us. 58

59. Emotional Expression 59 Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions.10 emotions Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt, shame, and guilt.

60. Detecting Emotion  Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions one may be trying to conceal.  Ex: Genuine smile only last 4 -5 seconds  Lie to Me Lie to Me 60 Which of Paul Ekman’s smiles is genuine?Paul Ekman’s

61. Detecting Emotion & Nonverbal Communication  Most of us are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal communication.  In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al, 2000). 61

62. 62 Stress Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) Life Changing Units (LCUs)- marriage, change job, etc… The more LCUs you have the higher your score is on the SRRS. Those who score higher are more likely to have stress related disease. Diathesis-Stress Model (Behavior both bio & environ)

63. The Stress Response System 63 Cannon proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or- flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar and fat, and dulling pain.

64. Behavioral Factors in Emotion Researchers studying emotion have recently been interested in looking at a person’s ability to detect emotion from another person’s facial expressions. The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expression can influence emotions as well as reflect them. In one study, actors made various facial expressions and their physiological changes were recorded. Results showed that when the actors made angry facial expressions, both their heart rates and their body temperatures increased.

65. Sociocultural Factors in Emotion Darwin believed that the facial expressions of humans are innate, are the same in all cultures, and evolved from the expressions of animals. Research has shown that the facial expressions of emotion do not differ significantly from one culture to another. The display rules for emotions vary from one to the next. Display rules are the sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. Other nonverbal signals appear to be universal indicators of emotion; however, the nonverbal signals of emotion vary from culture to culture.

66. Emotional Expression in Computer Communication Emoticons are used to express a variety of feelings when communicating through computer-mediated areas such as emails, blogs, and instant messages. :)  :( d(^-^)d Zzzzzzzz These emoticons allow us to compensate for the loss of information from other expressive channels that are not apparent through electronic media communications. Culture plays a role in the use of emoticons and the display rules guiding how these expressions are used. Emoticons are a great demonstration of the importance that emotions play in our every day communication with each other.

67. Gender Influences Researchers have found that females and males are more alike in the way they express emotion than what is believed. Women have, however, been more accurate at recognizing the emotional content of faces. Women also report experiencing emotions for a longer period of time than men. Men who embrace a stereotypically masculine identity are more likely to report themselves as being less emotional. Gender differences in emotion are more related to social context than to biological sex.

68. Classifying Emotions The valence of an emotion refers to whether it feels pleasant or unpleasant. Happiness, joy, pleasure, and contentment are positively valenced emotions. Sadness, anger, worry, and feeling upset are negatively valenced emotions. Negative affectivity refers to negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness. Positive affectivity refers to positive emotions such as joy, happiness, love, and interest. Valenced emotions tend to stay together: ie. +++++, -----

69. Arousal Level The arousal level of an emotion is the degree to which the emotion is reflected in an individual’s being active, engaged, or excited versus more passive. Positive or negative emotions can be high or low in arousal. This affects of state.

70. The Wheel of Mood States Psychologists have created a wheel of mood states they call the circumplex model of mood. (See page 339) A circumplex is a graph that creates a circle from two independent dimensions to organize and arrange emotions in a meaningful manner. Catharsis is the release of anger by directly engaging in anger. The catharsis hypothesis of psychodynamic theory states that behaving angrily or watching another individual behaving angrily reduces subsequent anger. (Old thought). Social cognitive theory argues against this view, because by acting angrily, individuals are often rewarded for their anger; and by watching others behave angrily, they learn to behave angrily (Today’s thought).

71. The Adaptive Functions of Emotions Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits in situations that threaten survival. Barbara Frederickson’s broaden-and-build model of positive emotion states that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on our attention and ability to build resources. The broaden-and-build model begins with the influence of positive emotions on cognitive processing. Positive emotions can serve as markers of well- being. They can also improve coping. Positive emotions let us explore, take risks and achieve…….

72. Resilience Resilience refers to the ability to bounce back from negative experiences, to be adaptable and flexible. Positive emotions play a role in the ability of resilient individuals to cope successfully with stress and life’s challenges. Resilient individuals are zestful, optimistic, and energetic in their approach to life. They are distinguished by their tendency to experience positive emotion. They cultivate positive emotion in their lives through the use of humor. They show a kind of emotional wisdom in that they capitalize on the capacity of positive emotions to reverse the stress of negative feelings You are how you feel!

73. Biological Factors in Happiness Recent research has been focusing on the way that positive emotions can reduce illness and promote health Research suggests there is a set point for happiness—that is a person’s general level of happiness that exists when the individual is not trying to increase happiness—influenced by genetic factors and personal dispositions. One study showed that happy individuals were more likely to carry out health-promoting behaviors and had more confidence that the behaviors would relieve their illness than were sad individuals. (Be happy & Be more +)

74. Obstacles in the Pursuit of Happiness The term hedonic treadmill captures the idea that any aspect of life that enhances our positive feelings is likely to do so for only a short time. We adapt quite rapidly to any change that might influence our happiness. A second obstacle is focusing on trying to be happier is not a good way to be happier!

75. Happiness Activities and Goal Striving Sonja Lyubomirsky suggests that we begin with intentional activities; activities that enhance our positive emotions. Physical activity, kindness, positive self-reflection, and experiencing meaning are all shown to enhance our positive affect. Goal pursuit provides structure that meaningfully relates to a chain of life events. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2014-01-meaningful-life- road-worth.html http://medicalxpress.com/news/2014-01-meaningful-life- road-worth.html