1. Social Aspects of Later Life
Chapter Fifteen
Social Aspects of Later Life

2. Introduction What characterizes personality in older adulthood?
How do older people keep busy in retirement?
What role does family play in the lives of older adults?
What are some social dangers facing older people?

3. 15.1 Theories of Psychosocial Aging
Learning Objectives:
What is continuity theory?
What is the competence–environmental press model?

4. Continuity Theory
Continuity theory: people tend to cope with daily life in later adulthood by applying familiar strategies based on past experience to maintain and preserve both internal and external structures
Internal continuity is a person’s identity
External continuity involves remembered social and physical environments and activities
People in later life tend to participate in the same activities as in adulthood

5. Competence and Environmental Press
Competence-environmental press incorporates elements of the biopsychosocial theory into the person-environment relationship
Competence: upper limit of a person’s ability to function in five domains
Physical health, sensory-perceptual skills, motor skills, cognitive skills, and ego strength
Environmental press: demands that the environment places on people

6. Competence and Environmental Press (cont’d.)
Competence and environmental press change throughout the life span
Positive affect can result from many combinations of competence and environmental press: see Figure 15.1
Adaptation level: when the press level is average for a particular level of competence
Boundaries are the zones of maximum performance potential and maximum comfort

7. Competence and Environmental Press (cont’d.)
The competence–environmental press model.

8. Competence and Environmental Press (cont’d.)
Each person has the potential of being well adapted to some living situations
When abilities match demands, people adapt
When there is a mismatch, they do not

9. 15.2 Personality, Social Cognition, and Spirituality
Learning Objectives:
What is integrity in late life?
How can people achieve it?
How is well-being defined in adulthood?
How do people view themselves differently as they age?
What role does spirituality play in late life?

10. Integrity Versus Despair
Integrity vs. despair: the process in late life when people try to make sense of their lives
One of Erikson’s stages
Thoughts of death are balanced by the realization that they will live on through the next generation
Life review: the process by which people reflect on the events and experiences of their lifetimes
To achieve integrity, they must accept the choices they made and become self-affirming and self-accepting

11. Well-Being and Emotion
Subjective well-being: an evaluation of one’s life that is associated with positive feelings
Tends to increase with age: see Figure 15.2
Arousal of the amygdala in older adults results in lower emotional arousal than in younger adults
Older adults experience less negative emotion as a result
Changes in cognitive processing in the prefrontal cortex also associated with changes in emotion regulation in older adults

12. Well-Being and Emotion (cont’d.)
The pattern of a typical person’s happiness through life.

13. Spirituality in Later Life
A strong sense of religion and spiritual identity helps many older adults deal with life’s changes
Religious adults have better physical and mental health than those who are not religious
Coping strategies that deal with spirituality (prayer, placing trust in God, etc.) used to deal with problems that effect mental and physical health

14. Spirituality in Later Life (cont’d.)
Spiritual support: a type of coping strategy that includes seeking pastoral care, participating in organized and nonorganized religious activities, and expressing faith in a God who cares for people
Greater personal well-being
Reliance on spiritual beliefs helps people focus their attention on parts of a problem that may be under their control

15. Spirituality in Later Life (cont’d.)
African Americans in particular show a reliance on religion in times of stress
Churches provide social support
Asians and Asian Americans also show a similar reliance on religion
Neuroscience research provides evidence that those who practice organized meditation have more organized attention systems
Brain activity changes with spiritual practices

16. Spirituality in Later Life (cont’d.)
Older adults may be more willing to talk to a pastor or rabbi about their problems than to a social worker or therapist
Service providers should determine what is important to their client to better understand the client and his/her problems

17. 15.3 I Used to Work at…: Living in Retirement
Learning Objectives:
What does being retired mean?
Why do people retire?
How satisfied are retired people?
How do retirees keep busy?

18. I Used to Work at… (cont’d.)
Retirement in the U.S. only really became popular after World War II
Economic downturns can majorly disrupt people’s retirement plans
As more people retire and live longer, the challenge to fund their retirement grows

19. What Does Being Retired Mean?
Means different things to different ethnic groups
Losing one’s occupational identity can be difficult to face
Some retirees look for a label other than “retired”
Retirement is a complex life transition
Process of withdrawing from full-time occupation and discovering other pathways to the end

20. Why Do People Retire?
Most workers retire by choice if they are in good health
Most choose to if they decide they will be financially stable
Due to economic downturn, some older employees are accepting buyout packages
Others retire due to poor health, being fired or laid off, etc.
Achievement of goals through work or retirement is a major consideration

21. Why Do People Retire? (cont’d.)
Women approach retirement differently than men
More discontinuous work histories; fewer financial resources; may plan less for retirement
Women who have never worked generally tend to perform the same household duties in retirement
African Americans are likely to continue working after age 65
No ethnic-based differences in health outcomes

22. Adjustment to Retirement
New patterns of personal involvement must be developed in the context of changing roles and lifestyles in retirement
Involves several factors over a period of time
Most people report feeling good about retirement
Relationship between health and retirement is complex
Forced retirement has a negative effect on health

23. Keeping Busy in Retirement
Some retired adults do volunteer work as a way to stay active.

24. Keeping Busy in Retirement (cont’d.)
Retirees must maintain social integration and be active in various ways
Some stay active through part-time or full-time employment
Senior centers and clubs promote lifelong learning
Volunteering can benefit well-being and serve the community
Allows people to develop a new aspect of the self, find a personal sense of purpose, and explore the vast resources that they have to offer

25. 15.4 Friends and Family in Late Life
Learning Objectives:
What role do friends and family play in late life?
What are older adults’ marriages and same-sex partnerships like?
What is it like to provide basic care for a partner?
How do people cope with widowhood?
How do men and women differ?

26. Friends and Family in Late Life (cont’d.)
Having relationships with others keeps us connected
Social convoy: a group of people that journeys with us throughout our lives, providing support in good times and bad
Size of the convoy and the amount of support it provides do not differ across generations

27. Friends and Siblings
Older adults have the same need for friends as do people in younger generations
Having at least one good friend provides a buffer against the losses that occur in old age
Also increases happiness and self-esteem
Cross-sex friendships are more important in late life
Older adults tend to have fewer friends and make fewer new relationships

28. Friends and Siblings (cont’d.)
Socioemotional selectivity: the process by which social contact is motivated by many goals, including information seeking, self-concept, and emotional regulation
Friends that die are not replaced by people from younger generations
Older adults have recently been using online services for finding friends that may lead to dating situations

29. Friends and Siblings (cont’d.)
Siblings are usually the longest-lasting relationship in a person’s life
Relationships usually more important in late life than in earlier adulthood
Many siblings share emotionally close relationships due to a long, shared past
Others become rivals, especially if their lives took very different paths

30. Marriage and Same-Sex Partnerships
Older married couples show several specific characteristics
Selective memory and perception of their partner
Tend to see the good things
Reduced potential for marital conflict
More similar in terms of mental and physical health compared to younger couples

31. Marriage and Same-Sex Partnerships (cont’d.)
Marriage in late life has many benefits
Helps people deal better with chronic illness
Division of household chores more egalitarian
Based on limited data, gay and lesbian relationships do not differ in quality from heterosexual relationships in later life

32. Caring for a Partner
Challenges of caring for a chronically ill partner are different than caring for a chronically ill parent
Partner assumes a new role as caregiver; this places stress on the relationship
Marital satisfaction when one partner has Alzheimer’s is much lower than average
Partner caregivers report more losses (intimacy, etc.) but more rewards than adult children caregivers

33. Caring for a Partner (cont’d.)

34. Widowhood
Death of a partner is one of life’s most traumatic experiences
Women are more likely to experience widowhood than men
Tend to marry men older than themselves
Have longer life expectancies
Loneliness is a major problem in widowhood
Friends and families may distance themselves during bereavement, causing more loneliness

35. Widowhood (cont’d.) Women and men experience widowhood differently
Those more dependent on the deceased partner reported higher increases in self-esteem
Men tend to recover more slowly since they may not have a strong social support system
Women experience more financial troubles
Some widowed adults cohabit or remarry for reasons such as a need for companionship

36. 15.5 Social Issues and Aging
Learning Objectives:
Who are frail older adults?
How common is frailty?
What housing options are there for older adults?
How do you know whether an older adult is abused or neglected?
Which people are most likely to be abused and to be abusers?
What are the key social policy issues affecting older adults?

37. Frail Older Adults
Frail older adults: adults who have physical disabilities, are very ill, and may have cognitive or psychological disorders
Competence is declining
Number is increasing given the growing population of older adults
Everyday competence must be assessed
Activities of daily living (ADLs): basic self-care tasks such as eating, bathing, toileting, walking, and dressing

38. Frail Older Adults (cont’d.)
Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs): actions that require some intellectual competence and planning
Differ from culture to culture
What are some example of IADLs in Western society?

39. Frail Older Adults (cont’d.)
Limitations in activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living, 2003–2007.

40. Frail Older Adults (cont’d.)
Limitations in activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living, 2003–2007.

41. Frail Older Adults (cont’d.)
Prevalence of disability and the need for assistance by age, 2005.

42. Housing Options
Design and location of housing and support services is a major issue as the population ages
Household: an individual who lives alone or a group of individuals who live together
One in five households in the U.S. are headed by someone 65 or older
Almost all older adults strongly want to live in their homes

43. Housing Options (cont’d.)
There may be a significant increase in the number of homeless older adults
The best housing arrangement for an older adult depends on her functional health
Functional health: the ability to perform ADLs and IADLs
As it decreases, the optimal housing situation changes

44. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Sense of place: the cognitive and emotional attachments that a person puts on their place of residence
By which a “house” is made into a “home”
Home modification can ensure that older adults can stay in their homes as their needs change
Example: ramps for wheelchairs

45. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Assisted living facilities: a supportive living arrangement for people who need assistance with ADLs or IADLs but who are not so impaired that they need 24-hour care
Health care personnel assist with medications and other procedures
As residents become frailer, their needs may not be met at the facility
Sometimes reluctant to leave for a long-term care facility

46. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Learn about the social model of elder care known as assisted living.

47. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Long-term care facilities provide medical care 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
5% of older adults live in long-term care facilities
Average residents are very old females, European American, widowed or divorced, and usually without living children
Decision of whether or not to place a family member in a facility is difficult
Often made in reaction to a crisis such as hospitalization

48. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Percentage of Medicare enrollees age 65 and older residing in selected residential settings by age group, Data from Older Americans 2010: Key indicators of well-being, by Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics, p

49. Housing Options (cont’d.)
Important factors when considering a nursing home:
Quality of life offered
Quality of care
Safety
Miscellaneous issues
Example: is there outdoor space?

50. Housing Options (cont’d.)
New approaches blend nursing homes and community-based living
Emphasis on living well rather than receiving care
Eden Alternative: program that eliminates loneliness, helplessness, and boredom from those in long-term care facilities
Creates a community where life is worth living
Green House Project: creates small neighborhood integrated homes for 6-10 residents
High level of personal and professional care

51. Elder Abuse and Neglect
Seven categories of elder abuse:
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
Emotional or psychological abuse
Financial or material exploitation
Abandonment
Neglect
Self-neglect
Definitions differ among ethnic groups

52. Elder Abuse and Neglect (cont’d.)
As many as five million older adults in the U.S. may be victims of elder abuse
Neglect is most common at 60% of this figure
What puts an older person at risk?
Conflicting evidence
In two-thirds of cases, abuser is a family member
People in positions of trust may become an abuser
External stresses, social isolation, caregiver stress, and others may be causes

53. Social Security and Medicare
Government-funded retirement programs such as Social Security have benefitted older people
Today only 10% of older adults are below the poverty line
$1.2 trillion spent on Social Security and Medicare in 2011
Will the U.S. government be able to continue funding these programs as the population ages?

54. Social Security and Medicare (cont’d.)
Cost of Social Security (blue line) and Medicare (purple line) as percentage of U.S. gross domestic product.

55. Social Security and Medicare (cont’d.)
Social Security began in 1935 by Franklin D. Roosevelt
Intended to provide a supplement to savings and other kinds of support
Now the primary source of income after retirement, and the only source for many
Financial pressure to reform Social Security and increasing numbers of employment-sponsored plans may turn Social Security back into supplemental income

56. Social Security and Medicare (cont’d.)
Social Security is funded by current workers’ payroll taxes
By 2030, there will be nearly twice as many people collecting Social Security per worker paying into the system
40 million U.S. citizens depend on Medicare for their medical insurance
People over age 65, disabled, or those with permanent kidney failure

57. Social Security and Medicare (cont’d.)
Four parts of Medicare
Part A: covers inpatient hospital services, skilled nursing facilities, etc.
Part B: covers cost of physician services, etc.
Part C (Medicare Advantage): offered by private companies approved by Medicare
Part D: some coverage for prescription medications

58. Social Security and Medicare (cont’d.)
Medicare is funded by a payroll tax
Faces the same dilemma as Social Security
Many people are opposed to Medicare because it is government-run
Significant cuts in expenditures have already taken place