1. Literature Reviews Why Knowing What Others Know Puts You in the Know

2. Today’s Purposes Action research project questions Understand how to do a literature review so can do your own. (conductor) Understand role of literature review in empirical research. (consumer) Review c haracteristics of qualitative research –Sampling –Interviews/observations –Data analysis –Trustworthiness Knowledge Check

3. Quick Review Why be a “curious skeptic”? -or- Why is it important to be a good consumer of research? Differences between qualitative and quantitative research Hypothesis – what and when 2 kinds of theories?

4. CONDUCTORS and CONSUMERS

5. The Purposes of a Review General purpose - to relate previous research to the current problem being investigated –Provide contextual understanding –Contribute to the overall evaluation of the credibility of the research –Indicate whether the nature of the research is targeted to the reader’s needs

6. The Purposes of a Review Specific purposes –Refine the problem Delimit Define terms; State researcher’s definition –Demonstrate how proposed study adds to knowledge base –Draw from different fields of study

7. The Purposes of a Review Specific purposes –Rationalize methods –Identify contradictions in existing research –Justify hypotheses

8. CONDUCTORS

9. Steps to reviewing related literature 1.Skim search 2.Identify key terms 3.Identify seminal works 4.Hard-core search 5.Analyze literature 6.Synthesize literature

10. How to Begin Get an overview of the field. Identify seminal works. Identify (broadly): – patterns –directions of research –terms –gaps –contradictory findings

11. Where to Begin Reviews handbooks, and yearbooks Meta-analyses - quantitative syntheses of a number of studies to arrive at an overall conclusion related to the topic being studied –ERIC Meta-Analysis Digests in educational researchERIC Meta-Analysis Digests –Best Evidence Synthesis - a review of quantitative and qualitative studies selected according to specified criteria

12. Where to Search SourceBenefitProblem Handbook Chapters ComprehensivePossibility of bias JournalPeer ReviewPeer review criteria Bias against null Methods/ philosophical bias Electronic JournalCurrentPeer review Reference ListTrace ancestryOut of date

13. Where to Search SourceBenefitProblem Electronic Database ComprehensiveNot all peer reviewed Social Science Citation Index Trace descendants of seminal work No recent publications Personal ContactsUnpublished or obscure articles Time consuming Conference PaperCurrentLooser standards

14. Initial Reading SKIM! Read abstract Read introduction; locate study purpose Maybe read discussion and/or conclusion

15. Steps to reviewing related literature 1.Skim search 2.Identify key terms 3.Identify seminal works 4.Hard-core search 5.Analyze literature 6.Synthesize literature

16. Guidelines for Analyzing Literature Group articles Keep consistent notes 1.Publication info 2.Main point of article 3.Methods 4.Findings Look for definitions of key terms

17. Note This takes time! Dead ends abound. Beauty of proximity. Befriend related fields of study.

18. CONSUMERS

19. Guidelines for Analyzing Literature Look for methodological strengths Look for methodological weaknesses Differentiate evidence and assertions Identify patterns in the literature Identify gaps in the literature

20. Qualitative Research Designs The Curious Skeptics at work

21. Qualitative Research Problems When to use a Qualitative design –To understand a phenomenon about which little is known (exploratory) –To gain a novel slant about a phenomenon we do know about (novelty) –To obtain greater detail about phenomenon that are difficult to understand through solely quantitative methods (process)

22. Qualitative Research Problems Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated –Examples of issues Drug abuse in high schools Teacher burnout Alienation of children with special needs –Examples of processes How teachers change to standards-based curricula How students react to high stakes testing programs How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into their studies

23. Qualitative Research Problems Characteristics –Includes a single, central phenomena –Open-ended –General in nature –Emergent –Neutral with respect to what will be learned No hypotheses, but still may have “hunches” Open to new information No expected outcomes

24. Sample Research Question “How do students at an alternative school for students at-risk of dropping out of school perceive their learning environment?” “What changes do teachers and counselors make when their school is placed on probation under the No Child Left Behind Law? What remains the same?”

25. Qualitative Research Problems Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems –Should not be too general or too specific –Should be amenable to change as data is collected and analyzed –Should not be biased with restrictive assumptions or desired findings –Should be written in “how” and “what” forms to focus on describing the phenomena –The problem can include the participants and the site Key Idea: Emergent

26. Selecting Participants Use of purposeful sampling strategies to select “information rich” participants Not intended to be representative of larger population! (i.e., not random sampling). Contrast with most quantitative studies. Be clear about why selecting participants or state “convenience sampling”

27. Selecting Participants Purposeful sampling strategies –Maximum variation - selecting individuals or cases to represent extremes Very positive or very negative attitudes Highest and lowest achieving students –Snowball (i.e. network) - initially selected participants recommend others for involvement

28. Selecting Participants Purposeful sampling strategies –Sampling by case - selecting individuals or cases for their unique characteristics Extreme Typical Unique Reputation –Key informant - selecting an individual(s) particularly knowledgeable about the setting and/or topic –Comprehensive - selecting all relevant individuals or cases

29. Interview Protocols Rapport Unstructured in nature, yet have focus General (“grand tour”) questions to specific questions based on participant responses Tape recording and transcribing interviews afford the opportunity to study the data carefully

30. Observations Unstructured in nature, yet have focus Role of the researcher –Continuum between observer and participant Complete ObserverParticipantComplete ObserverParticipantObserverParticipant –This should be clear in the study!

31. Trustworthiness CredibilityInternal Validity Degree of truth for individuals Transferability External Validity Degree of application to other contexts DependabilityReliabilityReplicable Confirmability ObjectivityFindings are product of inquiry QualitativeQuantitativeDefinition

32. Data Analysis Systematically examine, summarize, and synthesize the data Data collection and data analysis tightly coupled (constant comparative method) This should be explained thoroughly in the Methods section!

33. Data Analysis Coding –Organizing the data into reasonable, meaningful units that are coded with words or very short phrases that signify a category –Use of major codes and sub-codes is common

34. Data Analysis “Because the creation of codes is up to each researcher and is critical to the study, it is important to know something about how the codes were created” (McMillan, 2004, p. 268). BE SPECIFIC AND EXPLICIT!

35. Data Analysis Summarizing the coded data Pattern seeking and synthesizing –Identify relationships –Draws inferences –Enlarge, combine, subsume, and create new categories that make sense –Seek data that does not fit –Give raw data as evidence