1. Language and Nationality Najd 232

2. Language and Nationality  Is speaking the same language sufficient grounds for people to establish a nation? Should all people in the same nation speak the same language?

3. Language and Nationality  If the answer to both these questions is no, what should be the status of “minority” languages in multilingual societies?

4. Language and Nationality  In this section, we will focus on language and the nation-state. We will look at how the symbolic value of languages is used by the people to pursue political power and ends, and foster consciousness among members of the group. We will look at two case studies: India and Canada.

5. India  India is one of the most multilingual countries in the world. More than 400 languages are spoken there. These languages span at least four language families:  Indo-European  Dravidian  Austroasiatic  Tibeto-Burman  As well as some isolates

6. India  There are twenty-two official “scheduled” languages recognized in the constitution. Although English is not a legally sanctioned language, the Presidential Order of 1960 states “it should be the principal official language and Hindi the subsidiary Official language till 1965. After 1965, when Hindi becomes the principal official language of the Union, English should continue as the subsidiary official language.”

7. India  How does India, a federal republic, deal administratively with such a vast collection of languages ?

8. India  Regional level Eastern India dominated by 3 languages: Bengali Oriya Assamese

9. India  Regional level Western India dominated by 2 languages: Marathi Gujarati

10. India  Regional level Northern India dominated by 4 languages: Hindi Urdu Punjabi Kashmiri

11. India  Regional level Southern India dominated by 4 languages: Telugu Tamil Kannada Malayalam

12. India  There are many non-Hindi speaking citizens who are reluctant to accept Hindi which is the official language in six of the twenty-five states of the republic of India.  Therefore, English – the language of those who governed most of India as a British colony for nearly a century – serves as the associate national language and as a lingua franca acceptable to both the north and south India.

13. India  In a country where many languages are spoken but do not all enjoy the same degree of prestige, bilingualism, multilingualism and *diglossia are of common occurrence.  * diglossia: a situation in which two distinct varieties of a language are spoken within the same speech community.

14. India  For interethnic oral communication of an informal nature, Hindi or Urdu is used to a varying degree throughout the country ( the two are very similar in their colloquial forms, but Hindi is written in the Devanagari script whereas Urdu in a modified form of Arabic script ).

15. India Hindi ScriptUrdu Script

16. India  Such a large linguistic variety (in both languages and dialects) as exists in India poses a number of questions. Although it might be expected that one official language would tend to promote unity in a multiethnic nation, such unity would be achieved at a considerable loss of prestige to other native languages spoken by millions of people.

17. India  This is why the most widely used language in India, Hindi, has encountered resistance in many parts of the country.

18.  Hindi or English? Contentious Language Issue Resurfaces in India The contentious language issue, of whether to use Hindi or English, has resurfaced in India, where the new government is proposing giving Hindi primacy in official communications. India’s southern states, which do not speak the language of the north, have rejected such moves, but the bureaucracy in the Indian capital is scrambling to brush up its Hindi skills. Political leaders in southern states voiced loud protests when his government recently ordered officials to prioritize Hindi over English on official accounts on social media platforms such as Twitter and on government websites. www.voanews.com July 03, 2014

19. India  This is the reason why a nonindigenous and formerly a colonial language, English, has maintained itself surprisingly well as an associate official language since India’s independence. A second language for many Indians, English does not give an advantage to speakers of one particular native language, as does Hindi.

20. India  Another question has to do with determining the languages to be taught and used for instruction in Indian schools. What eventually became known as the three-language formula has resulted in secondary students being taught the regional language, Hindi and English ( and in many instances their mother tongue is yet a fourth language or local dialect).

21. India  Throughout much of the world, dialectal differences have tended to diminish rapidly in recent decades as a result of the mass media, education, and mobility. This has not happened in India, where caste differences are effectively symbolized by speech differences. As long as the old and well established social hierarchy persists, linguistic differences serve a useful function and are likely to be retained.

22. Canada  As in India, there is a great linguistic diversity in Canada – some eighty- five languages being spoken – but the biggest issue is the tension between the two official languages, French and English.

23. Canada  Problems of bilingualism have always been the central issue in the nation’s politics.

24. Canada  Jacques Cartier landed in current Quebec in 1534 and claimed the territory for King Francis I, eventually calling it New France. A century and a half later, British entrepreneurs, incorporated by Royal Charter, started fur trading in the Hudson Bay area in northern Canada.

25. Canada  After that, animosity between France and Britain gradually increased, and as a result of the Seven Year’s War (1756- 1763), the British government took over lower Canada and New France (which was renamed Quebec).

26. Canada  The differences between these two colonial populations were significant. French colonists spoke French, practiced Catholicism and followed the French civil code.  The British colonists spoke English, practiced Protestantism and followed traditional English common law.

27. Canada  To avert further local conflict, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1777. This guaranteed the residents the use of the French language, Catholicism and French civil law. This practice was reified (made more real) several times, and in 1969 the Official Languages Act made English and French Canada’s two official languages.

28. Canada  According to 2007 government figures, about 60 percent of Canadians claim English as their native language, as do about 23 percent for French. The majority of these French speakers – about 86 percent – live in Quebec. More than 17 percent of the population is bilingual in English and French.

29. Canada  In spite of the unique characteristics and background of the original British and French settlers, Anglophone Canadians began to control most of the elite positions in business and industry, even in Quebec.

30. Canada  By the 1960s, many Francophone residents began to feel that the French language was being overwhelmed by English. To maintain Canada’s bilingualism, the federal and local governments created various departments and institutions to oversee the use of languages in the province.

31. Canada  For some Canadians, one of these – the Quebec Board of the French Language – has sometime been draconian in its enforcement of language policies. For example, the Board’s “language police” (as labeled by some nationalist newspapers) gave tickets to shop owners who neglected to provide signs in French.

32. Canada  However, by the end of the twentieth century, such extreme policies were rescinded (removed), and the laws were modified to make French just markedly predominant on exterior business signs, as suggested by the Supreme court of Canada.

33. Canada  For the most part, the promotion of personal bilingualism in English and French is an important objective of the Canadian government. For example, in 2003, the federal government announced a ten-year goal to double bilingualism among Canadian college graduates from 24 percent to 50 percent by 2013.

34. Canada  However, the influence of English still remains strong. According to Monica Heller (1988), because of the social and economic tensions between Francophone and Anglophone speakers in Quebec, how bilingual speakers see these two languages is highly charged.

35. Canada These language issues have important political implications. Some believe that the only way to protect the French language and Francophone rights is for Quebec to split off from the rest of Canada. This has been an issue in almost every election since the 1980s. Although it is unlikely that Canada will divide, the cultural and linguistic tensions remain.