© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 1 Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Third Edition Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 3 Topics Covered in Chapter 19  19-1: Optical Principles  19-2: Optical Communication Systems  19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables  19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers  19-5: Wavelength-Division Multiplexing  19-6: Passive Optical Networks

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 4 19-1: Optical Principles  Optical communication systems use light to transmit information from one place to another.  Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation like radio waves.  Today, infrared light is being used increasingly as the carrier for information in communication systems.  The transmission medium is either free space or a light-carrying cable called a fiber-optic cable.  Because the frequency of light is extremely high, it can accommodate very high rates of data transmission with excellent reliability.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 5 19-1: Optical Principles Light  Light, radio waves, and microwaves are all forms of electromagnetic radiation.  Light frequencies fall between microwaves and x-rays.  The optical spectrum is made up of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 8 19-1: Optical Principles Light  Light waves are very short and are usually expressed in nanometers or micrometers.  Visible light is in the 400- to 700-nm range.  Another unit of measure for light wavelength is the angstrom (Ǻ). One angstrom is equal to 10 -10 m.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 9 19-1: Optical Principles Light: Speed of Light  Light waves travel in a straight line as microwaves do.  The speed of light is approximately 300,000,000 m/s, or about 186,000 mi/s, in free space (in air or a vacuum).  The speed of light depends upon the medium through which the light passes.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 10 19-1: Optical Principles Physical Optics  Physical optics refers to the ways that light can be processed.  Light can be processed or manipulated in many ways.  Lenses are widely used to focus, enlarge, or decrease the size of light waves from some source.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 11 19-1: Optical Principles Physical Optics: Reflection  The simplest way of manipulating light is to reflect it.  When light rays strike a reflective surface, the light waves are thrown back or reflected.  By using mirrors, the direction of a light beam can be changed.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 12 19-1: Optical Principles Physical Optics: Reflection  The law of reflection states that if the light ray strikes a mirror at some angle A from the normal, the reflected light ray will leave the mirror at the same angle B to the normal.  In other words, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.  A light ray from the light source is called an incident ray.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 14 19-1: Optical Principles Physical Optics: Refraction  The direction of the light ray can also be changed by refraction, which is the bending of a light ray that occurs when the light rays pass from one medium to another.  Refraction occurs when light passes through transparent material such as air, water, and glass.  Refraction takes place at the point where two different substances come together.  Refraction occurs because light travels at different speeds in different materials.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 16 19-1: Optical Principles Physical Optics: Refraction  The amount of refraction of the light of a material is usually expressed in terms of the index of refraction n.  This is the ratio of the speed of light in air to the speed of light in the substance.  It is also a function of the light wavelength.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 17 19-2: Optical Communication Systems  Optical communication systems use light as the carrier of the information to be transmitted.  The medium may be free space as with radio waves or a special light “pipe” or waveguide known as fiber- optic cable.  Using light as a transmission medium provides vastly increased bandwidths.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 18 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Light Wave Communication in Free Space  An optical communication system consists of:  A light source modulated by the signal to be transmitted.  A photodetector to pick up the light and convert it back into an electrical signal.  An amplifier.  A demodulator to recover the original information signal.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 20 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Light Wave Communication in Free Space: Light Sources  A transmitter is a light source.  Other common light sources are light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers.  These sources can follow electrical signal changes as fast as 10 GHz or more.  Lasers generate monochromatic, or single-frequency, light that is fully coherent; that is, all the light waves are lined up in sync with one another and as a result produce a very narrow and intense light beam.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 21 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Light Wave Communication in Free Space: Modulator  A modulator is used to vary the intensity of the light beam in accordance with the modulating baseband signal.  Amplitude modulation, also referred to as intensity modulation, is used where the information or intelligence signal controls the brightness of the light.  A modulator for analog signals can be a power transistor in series with the light source and its dc power supply.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 22 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Figure 19-7: A simple light transmitter with series amplitude modulator. Analog signals: transistor varies its conduction and acts as a variable resistance. Pulse signals: Transistor acts as a saturated on/off switch.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 23 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Light Wave Communication in Free Space: Receiver  The modulated light wave is picked up by a photodetector.  This usually a photodiode or transistor whose conduction is varied by the light.  The small signal is amplified and then demodulated to recover the originally transmitted signal.  Light beam communication has become far more practical with the invention of the laser.  Lasers can penetrate through atmospheric obstacles, making light beam communication more reliable over long distances.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 24 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Fiber-Optic Communication System  Fiber-optic cables many miles long can be constructed and interconnected for the purpose of transmitting information.  Fiber-optic cables have immense information-carrying capacity (wide bandwidth).  Many thousands of signals can be carried on a light beam through a fiber-optic cable.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 25 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Fiber-Optic Communication System  The information signal to be transmitted may be voice, video, or computer data.  Information must be first converted to a form compatible with the communication medium, usually by converting analog signals to digital pulses.  These digital pulses are then used to flash a light source off and on very rapidly.  The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber-optic cable, which can transmit them over long distances.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 26 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Fiber-Optic Communication System  At the receiving end, a light-sensitive device known as a photocell, or light detector, is used to detect the light pulses.  The photocell converts the light pulses into an electrical signal.  The electrical signals are amplified and reshaped back into digital form.  They are fed to a decoder, such as a D/A converter, where the original voice or video is recovered.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 28 19-2: Optical Communication Systems Applications of Fiber Optics  The primary use of fiber optics is in long-distance telephone systems and cable TV systems.  Fiber-optic networks also form the core or backbone of the Internet.  Fiber-optic communication systems are used to interconnect computers in networks within a large building, to carry control signals in airplanes and in ships, and in TV systems because of the wide bandwidth.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 30 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables  A fiber-optic cable is thin glass or plastic cable that acts as a light “pipe.”  Fiber cables have a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch.  A light source is placed at the end of the fiber, and light passes through it and exits at the other end of the cable.  Light propagates through the fiber based upon the laws of optics.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 31 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Construction  Fiber-optic cables come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and types.  The portion of a fiber-optic cable that carries the light is made from either glass, sometimes called silica, or plastic.  Plastic fiber-optic cables are less expensive and more flexible than glass, but the optical characteristics of glass are superior.  The glass or plastic optical fiber is contained within an outer cladding.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 32 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Construction  The fiber, which is called the core, is usually surrounded by a protective cladding.  In addition to protecting the fiber core from nicks and scratches, the cladding gives strength.  Plastic-clad silica (PCS) cable is a glass core with a plastic cladding.  Over the cladding is usually a plastic jacket similar to the outer insulation on an electrical cable.  Fiber-optic cables are also available in flat ribbon form.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 35 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables  There are two ways of classifying fiber-optic cables.  The first method is by the index of refraction, which varies across the cross section of the cable.  The second method of classification is by mode, which refers to the various paths the light rays can take in passing through the fiber.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 36 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables  The two ways to define the index of refraction variation across a cable are the step index and the graded index.  Step index refers to the fact that there is a sharply defined step in the index of refraction where the fiber core and cladding interface.  With the graded index cable, the index of refraction of the core is not constant. It varies smoothly and continuously over the diameter of the core.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 38 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables: Cable Mode  Mode refers to the number of paths for light rays in the cable.  There are two classifications: single mode and multimode.  In single mode, light follows a single path through the core.  In multimode, the light takes many paths.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 39 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables  In practice, there are three commonly used types of fiber-optic cable: 1. Multimode step index 2. Single-mode step index 3. Multimode graded index

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 40 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables: Multimode Step Index Cable  The multimode step index fiber cable is probably the most common and widely used type.  It is the easiest to make and therefore the least expensive.  It is widely used for short to medium distances at relatively low pulse frequencies.  The main advantage of a multimode stepped index fiber is its large size.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 42 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables: Single-Mode Step Index Cable  A single-mode or monomode step index fiber cable eliminates modal dispersion by making the core so small that the total number of modes or paths through the core is minimized.  Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 μm.  The pulse repetition rate can be high and the maximum amount of information can be carried in this type cable.  They are preferred for long-distance transmission and maximum information content.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 43 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables: Single-Mode Step Index Cable  This type of cable is extremely small, difficult to make, and therefore very expensive.  It is also more difficult to handle.  Splicing and making interconnections are more difficult.  For proper operation, an expensive, super-intense light source such as a laser must be used.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 45 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Types of Fiber-Optic Cables: Multimode Graded Index Cable  Multimode graded index fiber cables have several modes, or paths, of transmission through the cable, but they are much more orderly and predictable.  These cables can be used at very high pulse rates and a considerable amount of information can be carried.  This type of cable is much wider in diameter, with core sizes in the 50- to 100-μm range.  It is easier to splice and interconnect, and cheaper, less intense light sources can be used.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 48 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Specifications: Cable Size  Fiber-optic cable comes in a variety of sizes and configurations.  Size is normally specified as the diameter of the core, and cladding is given in micrometers (μm).  Cables come in two common varieties, simplex and duplex.  Simplex cable is a single-fiber core cable.  In a common duplex cable, two cables are combined within a single outer cladding.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 49 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Specifications: Attenuation  The most important specification of a fiber-optic cable is its attenuation.  Attenuation refers to the loss of light energy as the light pulse travels from one end of the cable to the other.  Absorption refers to how light energy is converted to heat in the core material because of the impurity of the glass or plastic.  Scattering refers to the light lost due to light waves entering at the wrong angle and being lost in the cladding because of refraction.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 50 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Specifications: Bandwidth  The bandwidth of a fiber-optic cable determines the maximum speed of the data pulses the cable can handle.  The bandwidth is normally stated in terms of megahertz-kilometers (MHz-km).  A common 62.5/125-μm cable has a bandwidth in the 100- to 300-MHz∙km range.  As the length of the cable is increased, the bandwidth decreases in proportion.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 51 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Fiber-Optic Cable Specifications: Frequency Range  Most fiber-optic cable operates over a relatively wide light frequency range, although it is normally optimized for a narrow range of light frequencies.  The most commonly used light frequencies are 850, 1310, and 1550 nm.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 52 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Connectors and Splicing  When long fiber-optic cables are needed, two or more cables can be spliced together.  A variety of connectors are available that provide a convenient way to splice cables and attach them to transmitters, receivers, and repeaters.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 53 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Connectors and Splicing  Connectors are special mechanical assemblies that allow fiber-optic cables to be connected to one another.  Most fiber-optic connectors either snap or twist together or screw together with threaded ends.  Connectors ensure precise alignment of the cables to ensure maximum light transfer between cables.  Dozens of different kinds of connectors are available for different applications. The two most common connector designations are ST (bayonet connectors) and SMA.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 54 19-3: Fiber-Optic Cables Connectors and Splicing  Splicing fiber-optic cable means permanently attaching the end of one cable to another.  This is usually done without a connector.  The first step is to cut the cable, called cleaving the cable, so that it is perfectly square on the end.  The two cables to be spliced are then permanently bonded together by heating them instantaneously to high temperatures so that they fuse or melt together.  Special tools and machines must be used in cleaving and splicing to ensure clean cuts and perfect alignment.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 56 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers  In an optical communication system, transmission begins with the transmitter, which consists of a carrier generator and a modulator.  The carrier is a light beam that is modulated by turning it on and off with digital pulses.  The basic transmitter is essentially a light source.  The receiver is a light or photodetector that converts the received light back into an electrical signal.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 57 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Light Sources  Conventional light sources such as incandescent lamps cannot be used in fiber-optic systems because they are too slow.  The two most commonly used light sources are light- emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor lasers.  A light-emitting diode is a PN-junction semiconductor device that emits light when forward-biased.  Semiconductor lasers emit coherent monochromatic light.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 58 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Light Transmitters: LED Transmitter  An LED light transmitter consists of the LED and its associated driving circuitry.  The binary data pulses are applied to a logic gate which operates a transistor switch that turns the LED off and on.  Most LEDs are capable of generating power levels up to approximately several thousand microwatts.  LED transmitters are good for only short distances.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 60 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Light Transmitters: Laser Transmitter  Most of the circuitry is contained in a single IC.  A multiplexer either passes the input data directly to the laser driver transistors or selects data that is clocked via a flip-flop and an external differential clock signal.  Enable/disable signals turn the laser off or on.  The laser diode connects to the driver by several resistors and a capacitor that set the current and switching response.  Most laser packages also contain a photodiode that monitors the laser light output and provides feedback to the APC circuit.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 62 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Light Detectors  The receiver part of the optical communication system consists of a detector that senses the light pulses and converts them into an electrical signal.  This signal is amplified and shaped into the original serial digital data.  The most critical component is the light sensor.  The most widely used light sensor is a photodiode. It is a silicon PN-junction diode that is sensitive to light.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 63 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Light Detectors  The phototransistor amplifies the small leakage current into a larger, more useful output.  PIN diodes are more sensitive than the PN-junction photodiode.  The avalanche photodiode (APD) is widely used and is the fastest and most sensitive photodiode, but it is expensive and its circuitry is complex.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 65 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers  A typical light receiver circuit is an IC using an external PIN or APD photodiode. It can operate at rates to 3.125 Gbps.  Optical transceivers or transponders are assemblies called optical modules into which both the light transmitter and light receiver are packaged to form a single module.  These modules form the interface between the optical transmission medium and the electrical interface to the computer or other networking equipment.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 66 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Power Budget  A power budget, sometimes called a flux budget, is an accounting of all the attenuation and gains in a fiber- optic system.  There are numerous sources of losses in a fiber-optic cable system:  Cable losses  Connections between cable and light source and photodetector.  Connectors  Splices  Cable bends

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 67 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Power Budget  To calculate the power budget:  First, calculate all the losses; add all the decibel loss factors.  Also add a 4-dB contingency factor.  Calculate the power gain needed to overcome the loss: dB = 10 log P t / P r where P t is the transmitted power and P r is the received power.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 68 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Power Budget: Regeneration and Amplification  There are several ways to overcome the attenuation experienced by a signal as it travels over fiber-optic cable. 1. Use newer types of cable that inherently have lower losses and fewer dispersion effects.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 69 19-4: Optical Transmitters and Receivers Power Budget: Regeneration and Amplification 2. Use regeneration.  Regeneration is the process of converting the weak optical signal to its electrical equivalent, then amplifying and reshaping it electronically, and retransmitting it on another laser.  This process is generally known as optical-electrical- optical (OEO) conversion. 3. Use an optical amplifier (the best option).  Optical amplifiers boost signal level without OEO conversion.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 71 19-5: Wavelength-Division Multiplexing  Data is most easily multiplexed on fiber-optic cable by using time-division multiplexing (TDM).  Developments in optical components make it possible to use frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) on fiber- optic cable (called wavelength-division multiplexing, or WDM), which permits multiple channels of data to operate over the cable’s light-wave bandwidth.  WDM has been widely used in radio, TV, and telephone systems.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 72 19-5: Wavelength-Division Multiplexing  The first coarse WDM (CWDM) systems used two channels operating on 1310 and 1550 nm. Later, four channels of data were multiplexed.  Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) refers to the use of 8, 16, 32, 64, or more data channels on a single fiber.  Arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) is an array of optical waveguides of different lengths made with silica on a silicon chip. It can be used for both multiplexing and demultiplexing.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 73 19-6: Passive Optical Networks  The primary applications for fiber-optic networks are in wide-area networks such as long-distance telephone service and the Internet backbone.  As speeds have increased and prices have declined, fiber-optic technology has been adopted into MANs, storage-area networks (SANs), and LANs.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 74 19-6: Passive Optical Networks  A newer and growing fiber-optic system is the passive optical network (PON), a type of MAN technology.  This technology is also referred to as fiber to the home (FTTH). Similar terms are fiber to the premises or fiber to the curb, designated as FTTP or FTTC.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 75 19-6: Passive Optical Networks The PON Concept  Most optical networking uses active components to perform optical-to-electrical and electrical-to-optical (OEO) conversions during transmission and reception. This is an expensive and problematic structure.  One solution to this problem is to use a passive optical network.  The term passive implies no OEO repeaters, amplifiers, or any other device that uses power.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 76 19-6: Passive Optical Networks The PON Concept  In a PON, the transmitter sends the signal out over the network cable, and a receiver at the destination picks it up.  There are no intervening repeaters or amplifiers. Only passive optical devices such as splitters and combiners are used.  By using low-attenuation fiber-optic cable, powerful lasers, and sensitive receivers, it is possible to achieve distances of up to about 20 km without intervening active equipment.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 77 19-6: Passive Optical Networks Figure 19-42: A passive optical network (PON) used as a high-speed Internet connection and for TV distribution in fiber to the home systems.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 1 Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Third Edition Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies 1 Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Third Edition Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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