1. Charged Interfaces Interfaces form at the physical boundary between two phases : Introduction  a solid and a liquid (S/L)  a liquid and its vapor (L/V),  a solid and a vapor (S/V).  two different solids (S1/S2)  two immiscible liquids (L1/L2).

2. Electrolytes The Interior of an Electrolyte An electrolyte is a solution which contains dissolved ions capable of conducting a current.

5. Interfaces The Solution/Air Interface Water molecules at the water/air interface and the origin of surface tension

6. Reduction in the surface tension of a solution by a dissolved surface-active agent

7. Orientation of CH 3 (CH 2 ) 10 COOH molecules at the solution/air interface and the formation of an electrical double layer

8. The Metal/Solution Interface The orientation of water molecules at a metal/solution interface.

9. Metal Ions in Two Different Chemical Environments Schematic illustration of valence electrons for 1 Mg atom, 4 Mg atoms, and the Fermi sea of delocalized electrons for solid magnesium metal

10. Stability of a Mg 2+ ion in two different environments

11. The Electrical Double Layer The electrical double layer is an array of charged species which exist at the metal/solution interface. The metal side of the interface can be charged positively or negatively by withdrawing or providing electrons.

12. The Electrostatic Potential and Potential Difference The electrostatic potential (at some point) is the work required to move a small positive unit charge from infinity to the point in question. The potential difference (between two points) is the work required to move a small unit positive charge between the two points, as shown in Fig

14. Significance of the Electrical Double Layer to Corrosion The significance of the electrical double layer (edl) to corrosion is that the edl is the origin of the potential difference across an interface and accordingly of the electrode potential. Simple equivalent circuit model of the electrical double layer. Cdl is the double layer capacitance, RP is the resistance to charge transfer across the edl, and RS is the ohmic resistance of the solution

15. As shown earlier, there is no net charge in the interior of solution, so that φS = φS’

16. (φM − φs) = PD MS = PD M/S, where the notation M/S refers to the interface formed between metal M and solution S. Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as PD S/M + PD M/M1 + V + PD M1/ref + P Dref/S =0 (3) Thus V = −PD S/M − PD M/M1 − PD M1/ref − PD ref/S (4)

17. The terms PD M/M1 and PD ref/M1 are small and can be neglected. In addition, PD S/M =−PD M/S. Thus, Eq. (4) becomes V = PD M/S −PD ref/S

18. Relative Electrode Potentials The potential difference across a metal/solution interface is commonly referred to as an electrode potential. The hydrogen electrode is universally accepted as the primary standard against which all electrode potentials are compared. In the special case

19. the half-cell potential is arbitrarily defined as E◦ = 0.000 V. Experimental determination of a standard electrode potential for some metal M using a standard hydrogen reference electrode

21. The following limitations must be recognized: (1) The emf series applies to pure metals in their own ions at unit activity. (2) The relative ranking of metals in the emf series is not necessarily the same (and is usually not the same) in other media (such as seawater, groundwater, sulfuric acid, artificial perspiration). (3) The emf series applies to pure metals only and not to metallic alloys. (4) The relative ranking of metals in the emf series gives corrosion tendencies (subject to the restrictions immediately above) but provides no information on corrosion rates.

22. Reference Electrodes for the Laboratory and the Field

24. The copper/copper sulfate reference electrode for use in soils

25. Measurement of the electrode potential of a buried pipe using a copper/copper sulfate reference