1. Special Pricing Policies

2. Overview Cartel arrangements Price leadership Revenue maximization
Price discrimination
Nonmarginal pricing
Multiproduct pricing
Transfer pricing

3. Learning objectives analyze cartel pricing illustrate price leadership
see how price discrimination affects output and prices

4. Learning objectives
distinguish between marginal pricing and ‘cost-plus’ pricing
discuss the various types of multiproduct pricing
explain how a company can use transfer pricing

5. Overview I. Basic Pricing Strategies II. Extracting Consumer Surplus
Monopoly & Monopolistic Competition
Cournot Oligopoly
II. Extracting Consumer Surplus
Price Discrimination  Two-Part Pricing
Block Pricing  Commodity Bundling
III. Pricing for Special Cost and Demand Structures
Peak-Load Pricing  Price Matching
Cross Subsidies  Brand Loyalty
Transfer Pricing  Randomized Pricing
IV. Pricing in Markets with Intense Price Competition

6. Cartel
Agreement among competing firms to fix prices, output and marketing.
Occurs in oligopoly markets
Can be explicit or Implicit
Legal or illegal
illegal in the US: Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890
examples: OPEC, IATA

7. Cartel arrangements
In order to maximize profits, the cartel as a whole should behave as a ‘monopolist’
 the cartel determines the output which equates MR = MC of the cartel as a whole
 the MC of the cartel as a whole is the horizontal summation of the members’ marginal cost curves
 price is set in the normal monopoly way, by determining quantity demanded where MC=MR and deriving P from the demand curve at that Q

8. Pricing Strategies Price leadership
Barometric price leadership
one firm in an industry will initiate a price change in response to economic conditions
the other firms may or may not follow this leader
leader may vary

9. Price leadership Dominant price leadership
one firm is the industry leader
dominant firm sets price with the realization that the smaller firms will follow and charge the same price
can force competitors out of business or buy them out under favorable terms
could result in investigation under Sherman Anti-Trust Act

10. PRICE ELASTICITY AND PROFIT MAXIMIZING PRICE
Raise price you will lose sales? Not necessarily if you know your price elasticity of demand UNIFORM PRICING: - Seller charges same price for every unit of the product. Lerner index = p-mc/p To maximize profits, firm should charge a price such that the LI = -1/price elasticity.

11. Suppose the MC = 800. And firms price elasticity is -1
Suppose the MC = 800. And firms price elasticity is -1.5 Then to maximize profits (MR=MC), firm should charge (p-800/p) = -1/-1.5= 2/3 p = 2400

12. Shortcomings of uniform pricing
Only the marginal buyer has a benefit = price. All other (inframarginal) buyers, have benefits that exceed price = buyer surplus Firm can increase profits by exploiting these surpluses

13. Price discrimination
Price discrimination: products with identical costs are sold in different markets at different prices
 the ratio of price to marginal cost differs for similar products
Conditions for price discrimination
the markets in which the products are sold must by separated (no resale between markets)
the demand curves in the market must have different elasticities

14. Price discrimination First degree (or perfect) price discrimination
seller can identify where each consumer lies on the demand curve and charges each consumer the highest price the consumer is willing to pay
allows the seller to extract the greatest amount of profits
requires a considerable amount of information

15. Implication: Charge different price for each additional unit in each market
In practice, transactions costs and information constraints make this difficult to implement perfectly (but car dealers and some professionals come close).

16. Price discrimination Second degree price discrimination
differential prices charged by blocks of services
requires metering of services consumed by buyers

17. Implication:- block or quantity discounts
Different prices for different incremental units in each market

18. Third degree (or simple) price discrimination
customers are segregated into different markets and charged different prices in each
segmentation can be based on any characteristic such as age, location, gender, income, etc

19. Multi-market price discrimination Different prices in each market
Implication:-
Multi-market price discrimination
Different prices in each market
Examples of 3rd degree price discrimination
doctors
telephone calls
theaters
hotel industry

20. More on Simple Price Discrimination
Two conditions are necessary:
Separable markets
Different substitutability (price elasticity of demand)
If demand is less elastic in market A but more elastic in market B, for profit maximization MRa = MRb =MC
Price-cost markup is higher in A than in B price is higher in A than in B

21. Price Discrimination comes in Many Variations
Product is tied to sale of complements –tying arrangement
Some customers receive reimbursements
Different products sold to different customers (Versioning)
A higher price for a specified low quantity, a lower price for a specified higher quantity
Different prices to different customers screened by qualification

22. Price Discrimination comes in Many Variations (2)
Different prices of x over time (inter-temporal price discrimination)
Same price, but changing attributes over time (product sequencing)

23. Versioning
One product for 2 markets – Barrier for the separation of markets must be identified to avoid resale Different products sell for different prices (two markets)- customers do not have to be identified. Customers “self-sort” and product versions create barriers.

24. Nonmarginal pricing
Cost-plus pricing: price is set by first calculating the variable cost, adding an allocation for fixed costs, and then adding a profit percentage or markup
Problems with cost-plus pricing
calculation of average variable cost
allocation of fixed cost
size of the markup

25. Other pricing practices
Price skimming
the first firm to introduce a product may have a temporary monopoly and may be able to charge high prices and obtain high profits until competition enters
Penetration pricing
selling at a low price in order to obtain market share

26. Other pricing practices
Prestige pricing
demand for a product may be higher at a higher price because of the prestige that ownership bestows on the owner
Psychological pricing
demand for a product may be quite inelastic over a certain range but will become rather elastic at one specific higher or lower price

27. (Mixed) Two-Part Pricing
When it isn’t feasible to charge different prices for different units sold, but demand information is known, two-part pricing may permit you to extract all surplus from consumers.
Two-part pricing consists of a fixed fee and a per unit charge.
Example: Athletic club memberships.

28. How Two-Part Pricing Works
Price
1. Set price at marginal cost.
2. Compute consumer surplus.
3. Charge a fixed-fee equal to consumer surplus. 10 8 6
Fixed Fee = Profits = $16
Per Unit
Charge 4 2 MC D
Quantity

29. Block Pricing
The practice of packaging multiple units of an identical product together and selling them as one package.
Examples
Paper.
Six-packs of soda.
Different sized of cans of green beans.

30. Commodity Bundling
The practice of bundling two or more products together and charging one price for the bundle.
Examples
Vacation packages.
Computers and software.
Film and developing.
Cable television – MTV and Learning Channel

31. Bundling as a bribe Can of soda with “free” bubble gum
Paper with “free” pen
Distinguish between buyer (customer) and consumer.

32. Peak-Load Pricing
Price
When demand during peak times is higher than the capacity of the firm, the firm should engage in peak-load pricing.
Charge a higher price (PH) during peak times (DH).
Charge a lower price (PL) during off-peak times (DL). MC
MRH DH PH
MRL DL PL QL QH
Quantity

33. Cross-Subsidies
Prices charged for one product are subsidized by the sale of another product.
May be profitable when there are significant demand complementarities effects.
Examples
Browser and server software.
Drinks and meals at restaurants.

34. Pricing in Markets with Intense Price Competition
Price Matching
Advertising a price and a promise to match any lower price offered by a competitor.
No firm has an incentive to lower their prices.
Each firm charges the monopoly price and shares the market.
Randomized Pricing
A strategy of constantly changing prices.
Decreases consumers’ incentive to shop around as they cannot learn from experience which firm charges the lowest price.
Reduces the ability of rival firms to undercut a firm’s prices.

35. Cannibalization
Occurs when sale of one product reduces the demand for another product with a higher incremental margin e.g. business travelers flying on restricted economy class fares wealthy families buying basic sedans instead of high end luxury cars

36. Fundamental reason for cannibalization is that seller cannot discriminate directly.
The discriminating variable does not perfectly separate the buyer segments.