1. Early Migrations, Forts and Indian Removal

2. Early Migrations Even though early explorers called the land of “Oklahoma” the “Great American Desert”, many Native Americans found it ideal for hunting and trading. Even though early explorers called the land of “Oklahoma” the “Great American Desert”, many Native Americans found it ideal for hunting and trading. Tribes sometimes moved from one area to another to find better food sources or to escape enemy tribes. The average territory or roaming area for many Plains Indians was 500 to 800 miles. Tribes sometimes moved from one area to another to find better food sources or to escape enemy tribes. The average territory or roaming area for many Plains Indians was 500 to 800 miles.

3. Migrations Wichita tribe – from northern part of Ok to southern Red River Valley (escape hated enemy, Osage) Wichita tribe – from northern part of Ok to southern Red River Valley (escape hated enemy, Osage) Caddo – Red River (SE part). Sociable, industrious. Used sign language to trade with other tribes Caddo – Red River (SE part). Sociable, industrious. Used sign language to trade with other tribes Shawnee – early 1800’s all around Ok Shawnee – early 1800’s all around Ok Kiowa – drifted to Central Plains, fought Comanche. Later in 1700’s became allies. In 1833, Osage warriors attacked a Kiowa camp in southwestern Oklahoma killing some 150 Kiowa in what is now called the Cutthroat Massacre. Kiowa – drifted to Central Plains, fought Comanche. Later in 1700’s became allies. In 1833, Osage warriors attacked a Kiowa camp in southwestern Oklahoma killing some 150 Kiowa in what is now called the Cutthroat Massacre. Osage - lived between the Missouri River and the Arkansas River which includes northeastern Oklahoma. Fought with everyone. Osage - lived between the Missouri River and the Arkansas River which includes northeastern Oklahoma. Fought with everyone. Comanche – from Wyoming in 1700’s Comanche – from Wyoming in 1700’s Kichai – from Texas and Louisiana to western Ok by 1800’s Kichai – from Texas and Louisiana to western Ok by 1800’s

4. More migrations.. Quapaw – more peaceful than Osage, started in eastern Ok, but disease and conflict ended them in northeast Ok Quapaw – more peaceful than Osage, started in eastern Ok, but disease and conflict ended them in northeast Ok Western Cherokee – late 1700’s from Tennessee River, big fights with Osage. Ft. Smith established to stop their fighting Western Cherokee – late 1700’s from Tennessee River, big fights with Osage. Ft. Smith established to stop their fighting Salina – Oldest permanent white settlement in Ok. Originally a trading post with the Osage. Established by Chouteau brothers Salina – Oldest permanent white settlement in Ok. Originally a trading post with the Osage. Established by Chouteau brothers

5. Early Forts In an attempt to halt violence between tribes that discouraged other tribes from relocating to Oklahoma, the US Secretary of War ordered the establishment of Fort Smith. In an attempt to halt violence between tribes that discouraged other tribes from relocating to Oklahoma, the US Secretary of War ordered the establishment of Fort Smith. Originally known as Cantonment, Fort Gibson was established on the Grand River by Colonel Matthew Arbuckle to protect white people and Native Americans in the area. Originally known as Cantonment, Fort Gibson was established on the Grand River by Colonel Matthew Arbuckle to protect white people and Native Americans in the area. While work had been underway on Fort Gibson, Arbuckle had other troops at the joining of the Red and Kiamichi Rivers called Towson. While work had been underway on Fort Gibson, Arbuckle had other troops at the joining of the Red and Kiamichi Rivers called Towson. Soldiers regulated the trade between Native Americans and white people and helped to keep the peace in the region. Soldiers regulated the trade between Native Americans and white people and helped to keep the peace in the region. Later, this Fort would help to protect the relocated Cherokee. Later, this Fort would help to protect the relocated Cherokee. Federal funds were appropriated to build a road from Fort Smith to Fort Towson. Federal funds were appropriated to build a road from Fort Smith to Fort Towson.

6. Ft. Smith (Oklahoma and Arkansas border but NOT in Oklahoma)

8. Commisary

9. “Hanging” Judge Parker’s Courtroom

12. Hell on the Border

13. The Gallows

14. Edge of Ft. Smith, overlooking the Arkansas River into Oklahoma

15. Overlook of where the Trail of Tears passed

16. What Ft. Gibson or Ft. Townson would have looked like

17. Indian Removals Early 1800’s: Early 1800’s: Treaties were signed with Indian nations to secure peace, gain land, and to trade Treaties were signed with Indian nations to secure peace, gain land, and to trade Hoped these treaties would also keep Indian tribes as allies to U.S. (and make them “civilized”) Hoped these treaties would also keep Indian tribes as allies to U.S. (and make them “civilized”) Hoped Indians would shift from hunting to farming and European-style way of life Hoped Indians would shift from hunting to farming and European-style way of life Most European settlers considered Indians inferior Most European settlers considered Indians inferior Various treaties effectively took away so much Indian land that the tribes had no choice but to give in to the pressure and move west. Various treaties effectively took away so much Indian land that the tribes had no choice but to give in to the pressure and move west.

18. Cherokee Outlet Treaty included: 7 million acres in northeastern Ok (60 mile wide strip to the border of the U.S. territory. This strip became known as the “Cherokee Outlet”. $50,000 for the inconvenience of moving $2,000 a year for three years for livestock $2,000 a year for ten years for education $1,000 for printing press and type $500 to Sequoyah for the “great benefits he has conferred to the Cherokee people. Few Cherokee’s took this offer, but this treaty laid the groundwork for eventually relocating the eastern Cherokee to Indian Territory.

19. Cherokee Outlet White settlers continued to press into Western Cherokee land in Arkansas. In 1828, the Western Cherokee agreed to exchange their Arkansas land for land in Indian Territory.

20. Forced removals – how? Treaties Treaties Pressure Pressure Abuse by citizens Abuse by citizens Laws passed by states which violated federal treaties Laws passed by states which violated federal treaties Failure of the U.S. military to protect the tribes Failure of the U.S. military to protect the tribes Failure of the U.S. Gov’t to make states comply with policy Failure of the U.S. Gov’t to make states comply with policy Indian Removal Act Indian Removal Act

21. Removals Since 1803, U.S. Presidents and Congress had different views on what to do with the American Indians Since 1803, U.S. Presidents and Congress had different views on what to do with the American Indians Two most favored views: Two most favored views: 1) assimilation in white man’s culture 1) assimilation in white man’s culture 2) relocation 2) relocation 1817: President James Monroe said Indians must be removed from the Southeast U.S. for the nation’s security 1817: President James Monroe said Indians must be removed from the Southeast U.S. for the nation’s security

22. President Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) Advocated removal as best for whites and Indians Advocated removal as best for whites and Indians Supported removal of all Indians, even those who adopted Euro-American lifestyle Supported removal of all Indians, even those who adopted Euro-American lifestyle Successfully pushed Congress to pass Indian Removal Act (1830) Successfully pushed Congress to pass Indian Removal Act (1830) Oklahoma, Kansas, southern Nebraska and eastern Colorado became “Indian Territory” in 1834 Oklahoma, Kansas, southern Nebraska and eastern Colorado became “Indian Territory” in 1834

23. Indian Removal Act Congress passed act to negotiate treaties to get tribes to move west of Mississippi River Congress passed act to negotiate treaties to get tribes to move west of Mississippi River Those who stayed would become citizens of the state, but many white settlers refused to accept the Indian’s presence Those who stayed would become citizens of the state, but many white settlers refused to accept the Indian’s presence Removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful but land greedy residents increased violent activity against Indian tribes without consequence of law Removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful but land greedy residents increased violent activity against Indian tribes without consequence of law U.S. and state gov’t had no regard for well-being of Indians U.S. and state gov’t had no regard for well-being of Indians Simply wanted them gone and would do what was necessary to complete their mission Simply wanted them gone and would do what was necessary to complete their mission