1. BBI3420 / 3436 ARGUMENTS

2. Persuasive Discourse Why do they want to persuade? –Authors –Advertisers –Prosecutors –Politicians –Perspective employees

3. Persuasive Discourse Why do they want to persuade? –Authors: the truth of particular ideas –Advertisers: consumers to buy products –Prosecutors: convince the jury that the accused is guilty –Politicians: the electorate to vote for them –Perspective employees: employers to hire them

4. Persuasive Discourse: Arguments Argument: a form of reasoning in which one draws a conclusion based upon particular pieces of evidence. Bierman and Assali (1996), “…a sequence of statements in which statements, called premises, are given as reasons or evidence for the truth of a statement, called the conclusion” (p. 33).

5. Persuasive Discourse: Arguments In persuasive communications, arguments are very important because a speaker has to convince the listeners. The speaker should be able to construct arguments that have good argument structures

6. Critical thinking is primarily about the evaluation of arguments. Definition of an argument: 1.a set of statements of which it is claimed that one of those statements (the conclusion) is supported by the others (the premises). 2.a reason or reasons offered for or against something

7. ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION (assertion) + PREMISES = THESIS STATEMENTS + SUPPORTING DETAILS

8. Example – A Simple Argument 1.Lawyers earn a lot of money. ( Premise ) 2.I want to earn a lot of money. ( Premise ) 3.I should become a Lawyer. ( Conclusion )

9. Sometimes some arguments have unstated premise and conclusion. In this case, inference indicators signal the occurrence of the premise and conclusion.

10. Example: [Premise] “You can’t check books out of the library without an ID card. So [conclusion] Bill won’t be able to check any books out” The word ‘so’ is the inference indicator to signal the conclusion.

12. Identifying the conclusion An argument's conclusion is what the person making the argument is ultimately trying to convince you of, i.e., the person's point. To identify the conclusion of an argument  'what does the person making the argument want me to walk away thinking?' (If the answer is 'nothing', then you're not dealing with an argument.)

13. Identifying the conclusion Location Logical Indicator of words Analysis of the content of the paragraphs

14. Identifying the conclusion Location 1.The thesis of the paragraph, section or article is often the conclusion. 2.Usually at the beginning, at the end or both

15. Identifying the conclusion Location When the city reconstructs our street next autumn, it should not widen it. I live on a hill and my current driveway is very steep where it connects with the street. If the city widens the street, my driveway will be so steep that I will scrape my tailpipe and bumper on the asphalt, ruining my car and gouging the new street. Keep the street that same width!

16. Identifying the conclusion Logical Indicator of words – Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The statement that fits best will be the conclusion. 1. Lawyers earn a lot of money. 2. I want to earn a lot of money. 3. I should become a Lawyer.

17. Some Conclusion Indicator Words: Look for conclusion indicator words, such as: therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, it follows that, so, which shows that, hence, accordingly

18. Identifying the Premises Every argument must also consist of at least one premise. A premise is a statement that is meant to support the conclusion. Ideally, a premise provides a good reason for believing the conclusion. (justification)

19. Some Premise Indicator Words: To identify premises, it often easiest to look for premise indicator words, words that are often used to introduce a claim as a premise such as: because, since, as, for, given that, as, judging from, seeing that

20. Missing Premises and Conclusions: People don't always come out and say what their point is. Similarly people may not always explicitly mention all the premises they are working with. As a result, we must be prepared to identify both missing premises and missing conclusions (i.e., conclusions or premises that are not explicitly stated by the arguer, but that are implicit in what the arguer does say).

21. Missing Premises and Conclusions: Apply all our background knowledge about the probable intentions of the author. Use an important principle of interpretation called the Principle of Charity  tells you always to interpret an argument so as to make its reasoning the best possible.

22. Missing Premises and Conclusions: "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“ If we were to put an inference indicator into this argument, which indicator would we choose and where would we put it? There are two main choices:

23. Missing Premises and Conclusions: "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“ A: "8:30 is too early to go to bed, therefore all my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“ B: "8:30 is too early to go to bed, because all my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30." Which is the better reading: A or B?

24. Exercise 1 Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine who gets your stuff. (Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the Future?" 2001) Identify the premise(s) and conclusion of this argument.

25. Exercise 2 Because she could not see so far, the children were able to play in safety. Identify the premise(s) and conclusion of this argument.

26. Exercise 3 The main reason I believe Australia should have nothing to do with SDI (Star Wars) research is that the whole plan is discredited. Hardly any scientists of note support it … Find the first word of the conclusion

27. Identify the inference indicator: Indian Classical music is very difficult to play because it requires you to improvise in a very sophisticated fashion. While many people realise that global warming will change the nature of our agricultural practices, very few people realise the extent of the changes that are coming. Thus most people in agriculture are quite complacent about their current ways of doing things.

28. Identify the inference indicator: Indian Classical music is very difficult to play because it requires you to improvise in a very sophisticated fashion. While many people realise that global warming will change the nature of our agricultural practices, very few people realise the extent of the changes that are coming. Thus most people in agriculture are quite complacent about their current ways of doing things.

29. Identify the inference indicator: Australia has only sufficient water resources to permanently sustain a population of 15 million. This means that the current Australian population is much too large. Suppose I agree with you that economic prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a moral duty to do something about it. I am not personally responsible for the plight of the world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am not morally bound to help them.

30. Identify the inference indicator: Australia has only sufficient water resources to permanently sustain a population of 15 million. This means that the current Australian population is much too large. Suppose I agree with you that economic prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a moral duty to do something about it. I am not personally responsible for the plight of the world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am not morally bound to help them.

31. Argument Structures

32. Types of Argument Structures 4 major argument types 1.Simple Arguments 2.Convergent Support Arguments 3.Linked Support Arguments 4.Serial Arguments

33. Simple arguments Simple arguments have one "layer" of premise. That is, no premise also functions as a conclusion. 1. Single Support Arguments Example: I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. Why? They're practically giving it away. P1: They're practically giving it away. MC: I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla.

34. Convergent Arguments If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and there is more than one premise like this, we have a convergent argument. I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is within my budget. P1: The car is in good shape P2: It gets good mileage P3: It is within my budget MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

35. Convergent Arguments If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and there is more than one premise like this, we have a convergent argument. I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is within my budget. P1: The car is in good shape P2: It gets good mileage P3: It is within my budget MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

36. Convergent Arguments In convergent arguments, the premises provide different and independent reasons for the claim. Each can support the claim by itself.

37. Convergent Argument Nuclear power plants should not be built, because they are dangerous. And, the power from these plants is not essential. Finally, these plants are not fair to future generations. Either premise provides support for the conclusion without the other, although the three together form a stronger argument than either on its own.

38. Convergent Argument Nuclear power plants should not be built they are dangerous the power from these plants is not essential these plants are not fair to future generations

39. Linked Arguments We link premises when it is clear that a premise by itself will not lead to the conclusion. Example: I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. I need a car, and I like this one. P1: I need a car P2: I like this car MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

40. Linked Arguments Linked argument - one in which the reasons are dependent on one another for their strength. They cannot stand alone.

41. Linked Arguments I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. I need a carI like this one a linked premise must link with one or more other premises to form support

42. Linked Arguments Note that neither premise can stand by itself. Could the argument be, "I need a car, therefore I should buy this used Toyota Corolla."? No, because we might ask, why this car? Could it be "I like this car, therefore I should buy this used Toyota Corolla."? No - just because you like a car doesn't mean you should buy it. Both premises are needed together.

43. Linked Argument There is reason to think the suspect is linked to this crime. The shots were fired from a jaguar; jaguars are not usual to this area; and the suspect owns a white jaguar.

44. Serial Argument A serial argument is a string of reasons and conclusions in which every conclusion is supported by one reason. Consider the following argument: Cheap imitations are unreliable and therefore are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run. So you should not buy cheap imitations.

45. Serial Argument In this argument, (1) is offered as a reason for (2) and (2) is offered as a reason for (3). Both the final conclusion (3) and the intermediate conclusion (2) are supported by one reason. It is therefore a serial argument. (1) Cheap imitations are unreliable and therefore (2) are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run. So (3) you should not buy cheap imitations.

46. Serial Argument (1) Cheap imitations are unreliable We diagram this argument as follows: (2) [They] are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run. (3) you should not buy cheap imitations.

47. Serial Argument Each intermediate conclusion is a premise for the next step in the argument” One premise leads to another in a chain until it leads to the conclusion. Before coming to a main conclusion of the whole argument, there may be a series of sub- conclusion that follows from the previous premises and then function as yet another premise for the next conclusion, either sub or main.

48. Argument Diagramming Identify each claim and number them. Provide missing parts if needed. Determine relation of claims and diagram.

50. What Is Not an Argument? More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if: It is a group of two or more statements. One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises). An argument is a claim defended with reasons.

51. What Is Not an Argument? Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false). Examples: Red is a colour. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)

52. What Is Not an Argument? Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false). –Questions, commands, and other kinds of non- statements cannot be parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.) –What time is it? (question) Close the window! (command) Oh my goodness! (exclamation)

53. What Is Not an Argument? Statement test: Does it make sense to put “it is true that” or “it is false that” in front of it? If so, it is a statement. If not, it’s not. –What time is it? (question) Close the window! (command) Oh my goodness! (exclamation) –Red is a colour. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)

54. What Is Not an Argument? TRICKY STATEMENTS Rhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement. Don’t you know smoking will kill you? (means: Smoking will kill you.) How am I supposed to do that? (means: I can’t do that.)

55. What Is Not an Argument? No single statement is an argument. Arguments always consist of at least two statements. Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.

56. What Is Not an Argument? Reports A statement or group of statements intended simply to convey information about a subject. Unsupported statements of belief or opinions Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.

57. What Is Not an Argument? Illustrations Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true. Conditional Statements Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-and-such is true if something else is true. Explanations Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide an account of why something has occurred or why something is the case.

58. Example: Report Planet Earth was much drier in the Triassic than it is now, and there were large deserts in inland areas. There were no flowering plants or grasses--they evolved much later. The most common trees were conifers, similar to today's pines. Other large plants included yews, ginkgos, and the palmlike cycads. Moisture- loving ferns and horsetails thrived by lakes and rivers. (Philip Whitfield, Simon & Schuster's Children's Guide to Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals, 1992)

59. Example: Report “More people moved to the south this year.” “Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.” Statements made to convey information. Notice that, even though there is a conclusion indicator, this is still a report.

60. Example: Unsupported statements of belief or opinion For the person who called and said Larry Bird was better than Michael Jordan, wake up. No one was ever better than Michael Jordan, not even Kareem in his glory and not even Dr. J. (From a newspaper call-in column)

61. Example: Illustration Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daises and day lilies are delicious in salads.

62. Example: Conditional Statement If Aida comes to the wedding then I will come to the wedding.

63. Example: Explanation I speak good English because my parents encouraged me to practice it everyday. Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. Tries to show why something is the case (not argue that it is the case).

64. INFERENCE

65. Making inference Why do you think the cat is in the tree?

66. Making inference We don’t know exactly why the cat is in the tree, but looking at the picture, we can guess that the dog chased the cat up the tree. The guess that we mad is called an inference.

67. Inferring from Text What is an inference? An educated guess / a reasoned guess about what you don’t know based on what you do know. When we make an inference, we draw a conclusion by reasoning from evidence. They inferred she was upset when she left the room. How did they know that she was upset?  She was hysterical.  There were tears in her eyes.  She ran out and ignored the others although they tried to calm her down.

68. Reading Tips: 1. Make sure your inferences rely mainly on the author’s words rather than your own feelings or experience. Your goal is to read the author’s mind, not invent your own message. 2. Check to see if your inference is contradicted by any statements in the paragraph. If it is, it is not an appropriate or useful inference. 3. If the passage is a tough one, check to see if you can actually identify the statements that led you to your conclusion. This kind of close reading is a good comprehension check. It will also help you remember the material.

69. The following questions can be powerful igniters of both text-to-text and text-to-self/world inferences. Ideally, we can figure out ways to make such inference-generating questions automatic: Who is doing the action? Why? How does a part fit into the overall text? What are the effects of an event, both psychological and physical? What feelings does a person experience? What is the author’s purpose? What if I had been in that situation? How does this apply to my life or the world around me? What does this word mean?

70. Easy Money Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to a recycling center. Lately business has been so good that they have divided their work in half. Bob’s area includes a park where teams play baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office buildings and stores. Many people drink canned drinks Sam’s route includes office buildings Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they started. Bob’s route includes a park

71. Easy Money Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to a recycling center. Lately business has been so good that they have divided their work in half. Bob’s area includes a park where teams play baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office buildings and stores. Many people drink canned drinksInference Sam’s route includes office buildingsFact Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they started. Inference Bob’s route includes a parkFact

72. What evidence can you find in the text to support the issue? Look for details within the text Include: Example of the sentence, lines & paragraph

73. Assumptions An assumption, is an unstated reason. It is something that must be true for an argument to work, but which is not explicitly stated in the argument. Part of your belief system. Something you don't question. Your mind takes for granted that your assumption is true

74. Question 2: You will be happy with your Internet access if you sign up with Ampac. They are the world’s largest ISP with over 12 million subscribers. What is being assumed? Is biggest always the best? Just because Ampac is the largest ISP in the world, does it mean that they will provide the best Internet service? The argument holds together only because this assumption was made. Should you accept it?

75. A woman gets home, screeches her car into the driveway, runs into the house, slams the door and shouts at the top of her lungs, "Honey, pack your bags! I won the Lottery!“ The husband says, "Wow, I can't believe it!! What should I pack, beach stuff or mountain stuff?“ "It doesn't matter", the wife yells back, "just get the HECK out!" Winning the Lottery

76. Assumptions vs Inference Situation: Sara has got an F for her July test. Inference: Sara failed her English test. Assumption: Sara did not study for her test

77. Don’t Quote! When answering a question that asks you to identify an assumption, unlike when answering other questions, you should never give a quote from the text; by definition, assumptions are unstated.

78. FACTS VS OPINIONS

79. WHAT ARE FACTS? A statement is a fact if you can answer yes to these two questions:  Is it true?  Can it be proved?

80. What is an opinion? An opinion statement can be well thought out but can’t be proved true or false – it is always open to debate. Ask yourself: Does this statement tell a thought or feeling? Would the statement be true all the time? Look for signal words

81. Opinion Caution Agreeing with a statement doesn’t make it true. For example: Dairy Queen ice cream tastes better than ice cream you buy from the grocery store. Why is this statement an opinion? o This is a personal judgment: someone else may not agree. o did you notice the signal word?

82. Identify the fact or opinion Maryland is located in the United States Reading is the most interesting subject in school. The character of Cinderella should marry the prince. Bats use echolocation when they fly to “see” where they are going

83. Identify the fact or opinion Maryland is located in the United States F Reading is the most interesting subject in school. O The character of Cinderella should marry the prince. O Bats use echolocation when they fly to “see” where they are going F

84. Authors use facts to support opinions Ads promise that you’ll be happier if you buy certain clothes or toys. Articles try to talk you into believing an idea. Speeches and propaganda try to persuade you to change your mind to do something. These are examples of persuasive writing –In persuasive writing the writer’s goal is to explain why a reader should think, act, or feel the same way he or she does.

85. THANK YOU