1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7 Chapter 4 Psychological Development

2. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 2 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology – The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

3. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 3 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 How Do Psychologists Explain Development? Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

4. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 4 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture controversy – Long-standing dispute over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 5 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects

6. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 6 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

7. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 7 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view Age Performance Continuity view Discontinuity view

8. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 8 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning

9. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 9 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Psychological Traits in Your Genes While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence Self-fulfilling prophecy – An expectation that becomes realized because it guides people’s behaviors

10. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 10 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 What Capabilities Does the Child Possess? Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

11. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 11 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Prenatal Development Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth Zygote Embryo Fetus Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism

12. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 12 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Neonatal Period (from birth to one month) Sensory abilities Motor abilities Postural reflex Grasping reflex

13. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 13 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Babies learn through classical conditioning Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment Anxious-ambivalent attachment Avoidant attachment

14. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 14 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Maturation – The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time

15. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 15 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Birth

16. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 16 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Responds to sound Becomes quiet when picked up Vocalizes occasionally Birth 1 mo.

17. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 17 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Smiles socially Recognizes mother Rolls from side to back Lifts head and holds it erect and steady Birth1 mo. 2 mo.

18. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 18 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult Searches for source of sound Sits with support, head steady Birth1 mo.2 mo. 3 mo.

19. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 19 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table Sits with slight support Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo. 4 mo.

20. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 20 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Discriminates strangers from familiar persons Turns from back to side Makes distinctive vocalizations Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo. 5 mo.

21. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 21 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Lifts cup and bangs it Smiles at mirror image Reaches for small object Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo. 6 mo.

22. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 22 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Makes playful responses to mirror Sits alone steadily Crawls Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.

23. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 23 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes up to four different syllables Listens selectively to familiar words Pulls to standing position Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo. 8 mo.

24. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 24 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo. 9 mo.

25. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 25 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Plays pat-a-cake Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo. 10 mo.

26. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 26 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Stands alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo. 11 mo.

27. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 27 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Walks alone Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo.11 mo. 1 year

28. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 28 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 What Are the Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Childhood? Infants and children face especially important developmental tasks in the areas of language, acquisition, cognition, and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in adolescence and adulthood

29. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 29 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 How Children Acquire Language Innateness theory of language – Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar

30. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 30 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 How Children Acquire Language Babbling stage Vocabulary and grammar One-word stage Two-word stage Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences) Morphemes (meaningful units of language that make up words) Overregularization (e.g. using “hitted” and “feets”)

31. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 31 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 How Children Acquire Language Other language skills Social rules of conversation Abstract words (e.g. hope, truth)

32. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 32 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Cognitive Development Cognitive development – The process by which thinking changes over time Schemes – Mental structures or programs that guide a developing child’s thoughts

33. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 33 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Accommodation – Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood Cognitive Development Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemes

34. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 34 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

35. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 35 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Birth to about age 2 Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli Sensorimotor intelligence Mental representations Object permanence

36. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 36 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 2 to age 6 or 7 Marked by well- developed mental representation and the use of language Egocentrism Animalistic thinking Centration

37. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 37 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 7 to about age 11 Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought Conservation Mental operations

38. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 38 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational From about age 12 on Abstract thought appears

39. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 39 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Social and Emotional Development Temperament – An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

40. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 40 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Authoritarian parents Authoritative parents Permissive parents Uninvolved parents Social and Emotional Development Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 41 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Social and Emotional Development Other factors influencing a child’s development may include: Effects of day care School influences Leisure influences

42. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 42 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Age/Period Principal Challenge 0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust 1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt 6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair

43. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 43 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence? Adolescence offers new developmental challenges growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socio-emotional changes

44. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 44 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

45. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 45 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness Physical Maturation in Adolescence Menarche – Onset of menstruation, which signals puberty in girls

46. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 46 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Hormones rise to high levels The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel” This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex Cognitive Development in Adolescence Adolescence brings Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

47. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 47 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The increasing influence of peers Common social problems in adolescence Delinquency Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis

48. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 48 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Masturbation Same-sex orientation Heterosexual behavior Sexual Issues in Adolescence Sexual issues in adolescence often include the following:

49. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 49 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning I. Preconventional morality Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity

50. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 50 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 II. Conventional morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 3: “Good child” orientation Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

51. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 51 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 III. Postconventional (principled) morality Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation

52. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 52 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Culture and morality Gender and morality

53. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 53 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face? Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in adulthood these changes include both growth and decline

54. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 54 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood Love and work Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Generativity – A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations

55. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 55 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Ego-identity – The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair

56. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 56 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as Vision Hearing Thinking, learning, and problem solving Memory Sexual functioning Social interaction Emotions

57. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 57 End of Chapter 4