1. The Structure of 19 th Century Society Suffering peasants in the Irish Famine

2. The Aristocracy  Consisted of traditional landholders as well and the upper gentry.  Challenged by the new industrial wealth of the middle classes (only some aristocrats become capitalists.)  They still controlled most of the important positions of power in government and most of the wealth in the nation.

3. The Middle Class  Confident and assertive group of the 19 th century.  Bankers, industrialists, professionals, and “white collar” workers.  Strongly opposed aristocratic privilege.  Middle class values of hard work, self reliance, temperance, and the patriarchal family permeate all levels of society.

4. Artisans and Skilled Labor  Most independent of any of the classes in their work and position.  Elimination of the guild system opened new free market possibilities.  Skill laborers faced competition from machines, but often learned to work with them.  Led labor movements with successful strikes despite labor unions being illegal.

5. The Working Class  Consisted of mostly unskilled wage laborers in the masses who move to the cities.  More than half the workers in factories are women and a quarter are children do to lower wages and their ability to be intimidated.  Faced dangerous working conditions.  Harsh discipline used by factory managers.  Often lived in slum conditions. Women miners in Wales

6. The Peasants  Still the largest class in most of Europe in the early 19 th century (Britain one exception).  Position changes dramatically with the end of feudal obligations after the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.  Entering the free marked ended many protections brought by feudal obligations (some succeed as farmers, others forced into wage labor on large farms or in cities.  Often distrustful of reformers and outsiders attempting to improve their conditions.

7. Population  Population in Europe during the 18 th century more than doubles in many areas.  Cities grow, London reaches 1 million in 1800 (6.7 million by 1900)  Population grows due to less disease, increase in food supply, improving sanitation, and lower age of marriage.  Irish Famine exposed problems of liberal economy; death of millions compounded by market forces. Once place in Europe where population declines.

8. Social Welfare  The 19 th century saw an increase in charity despite liberal bias against it; still mainly through churches and work houses.  Child labor reform is enacted, raising ages and lowering hours.  Compulsory education is introduced in most European nations. Child laborers in mines