1. 1 Marketing Research Dr. A. K. Dey Attitude Scaling

2. 2 Learning Objectives  To understand the linkage among attitudes, behavior, and marketing effectiveness.  To become familiar with the concept of scaling.  To learn about the various types of attitude scales.  To examine some basic considerations in selecting a type of scale.  To realize the importance of attitude measurement scales in management decision making.

3. 3 Attitude An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given matter

4. 4 Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs n The term hypothetical construct is used to describe a variable that is not directly observable, but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior - attitudes are considered to be such variables.

5. 5 Attitude Measurement  Majority of questions in marketing research are designed to measure attitudes  Attitudes include  Information possessed  Feelings of like and/or dislike  Intentions to behave  Management wants to understand and influence behavior

6. 6 Reasons for Measuring Attitudes  Attitudes lead to behavior  More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and interpret behavior  Large capacity for diagnosis and explanation

7. 7 Attitude Research  Attitudes directly affect purchase decisions and these in turn, directly affect attitudes. Attitude Action/ Behavior

8. 8 Three Components of an Attitude  Affective  Cognitive  Behavioral

9. 9 Affective The feelings or emotions toward an object

10. 10 Cognitive Knowledge and beliefs

11. 11 Behavioral  Predisposition to action  Intentions  Behavioral expectations

12. 12 Concepts of Measurement and Scaling Measurement Standardized process of assigning numbers or other symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rules Scaling Process of creating a continuum on which objects are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object possesses

13. 13 Types of Measurement Type of measurement depends on type of data! Type of Measurement  Nominal  Ordinal  Interval  Ratio

14. 14 Measurement Scales: Nominal Numbers identify and classify objects No ordering or spacing are implied Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each category If one entity is assigned the same number as another, they are identical with respect to the nominal variable. Examples: Players in a football team Colors of traffic light Gender (female= 1; male = 2)

15. 15 Measurement Scales: Ordinal Objects are ranked in order with regard to some common variable. Numbers indicate the relative position of objects but not the magnitude of difference Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or mode Examples: Result of 100 meter dash (1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd ) Ranking of largest fast food companies

16. 16 Measurement Scales: Interval Object is measured on a continuum Arbitrary zero point Differences between objects can be compared Entire range of statistical operations can be employed (mean, correlation, ANOVA, regression) Examples: Temperature Attitudes

17. 17 Measurement Scales: Ratio Interval scale with fixed zero point Possible to say how may times greater or smaller one object is than another. Comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible Examples: Weight, length Age Store sales (1 million, 2002; 1.5 million, 2003) Market shares (51% market share)

18. 18 Types of Scales and Their Properties Type of Measurement Scale Types of Attitude Scale Rules for Assigning Number Typical Application Statistics / Statistical Tests NominalDichotomous “yes” or “no” scales. Objects are either identical or different Classification (by sex, geographic are, social class) Percentages, mode / chi -square Ordinal or Rank Order Comparative, Rank order, Itemized Category, Paired Comparison Objects are greater or smaller Rankings (preference, class standing) Percentile, median, rank-order correlation / Friedman ANOVA IntervalLikert, Thurstone, Stapel, Associative Semantic-Differential Intervals between adjacent ranks are equal Index numbers, temperature scales, attitude measures Mean, standard deviation, product moment correlations / t-tests, ANOVA, regression, factor analysis RatioCertain scales with special instructions There is a meaningful zero, so comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible Sales, incomes, units produced, costs, age Geometric and harmonic mean, coefficient of variation

19. 19 Measuring Attitudes Ranking Rating Sorting Choice

20. 20 The Attitude Measuring Process Ranking - Rank order preference Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts Choice - Selection of preferred alternative

21. 21 n Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall performance on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

22. 22 n Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses. The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object.

23. 23 n Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

24. 24 n Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other.

25. 25 n Physiological measures of attitudes provide a means of measuring attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. for example, galvanic skin responses, measure blood pressure etc.

26. 26 Classification of attitude scales Itemized Category Scales Comparativ e Scales Q-sort Scales Paired Comparison Scales Rank-Order Scales Constant Sum Scales Pictorial Scales Semantic Differential Scales Associative Scales Stapel ScalesLikert Scales Single-Item Scales Continuous Scales Attitude Scales Multi-Item Scales

27. 27 Simple Attitude Scaling n In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories;

28. 28 Simplified Scaling Example THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______ AGREE______ DISAGREE

29. 29 Multiple-item Scales Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average score Multiple item Scales Likert Semantic Differential Stapel Associative Scaling

30. 30 Category Scales n A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it provides more information. n Wording of questions is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.

31. 31 Example of Category Scale How important were the following in your decision to visit Agra (check one for each item) VERYSOMEWHATNOT TOO IMPORTANTIMPORTANTIMPORTANT CLIMATE_________________________________ COST OF TRAVEL_________________________________ FAMILY ORIENTED_________________________________ EDUCATIONAL/ HISTORICAL ASPECTS _______________________________ FAMILIARITY WITH AREA_________________________________

32. 32 Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale n An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. n Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

33. 33 Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

34. 34 Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis Cont. There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke that cannot be mastered. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

35. 35 Playing tennis is a great way to exercise. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis Cont.

36. 36 Semantic Differential n A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.

37. 37 n A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

38. 38 Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex Passive___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

39. 39 Semantic Differential

40. 40 Numerical Scales n Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).

41. 41 Stapel Scales n Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. n The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.

42. 42 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image Department Store Name +3 +2 +1 Wide Selection -2 -3

43. 43 Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. the more accurately you think the word describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the large the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

44. 44 Behavioral differential: the behavioral differential instrument has been developed for measuring the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. For example: A 25-year old woman sales representative Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not Ask this person for advice.

45. 45 Paired Comparisons In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the one they prefer. Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2). If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue and no longer carefully discriminate among them.

46. 46 Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand: Brand A _________ Brand B _________ Brand C _________

47. 47 Graphic Rating Scales n A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

48. 48 Graphic Rating Scale Stressing Pictorial Visual Communications 3 2 1 Very Good Poor

49. 49 Graphic Rating Scale Uncomfortable Scale A Comfortable Uncomfortable Scale B Comfortable 0102030405060708090100

50. 50 Monadic Rating Scale A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup. CompletelyVeryFairly WellSomewhatVery SatisfiedSatisfiedSatisfiedDissatisfiedDissatisfied

51. 51 A Comparative Rating Scale A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position. TOO MUCHABOUT RIGHTTOO LITTLE

52. 52 An Unbalanced Scale An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union? Neither Satisfied QuiteVery SatisfiedNor DissatisfiedSatisfiedDissatisfied

53. 53 Steps in multiple-item scale development Determine clearly what you are going to measure Generate as many items as possible Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale Administer the items to an initial sample Evaluate and refine the items Finally, optimize the scale length

54. 54 Accuracy of Attitude Measurements Validity An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is supposed to measure Reliability The consistency with which the measure produces the same results with the same or comparable population Sensitivity Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able to discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measured Relevancy Relevance = reliability * validity