1. 1 Radical Reactions Radicals and Radical Stability. Radical Mechanisms: Initiation, Propagation, Termination Halogenation of Alkanes. Bond Energies and Energy Diagrams. Product Distribution in Percent. Stereochemistry. Allylic Halogenation. Radical Addition to Alkenes. Chapter 15 Topics:

2. 2 Radical Reactions A significant group of reactions involve radical intermediates. A radical is a reactive intermediate with a single unpaired electron, formed by homolysis of a covalent bond. A radical contains an atom that does not have an octet of electrons. Half-headed arrows are used to show the movement of electrons in radical processes. Introduction:

3. 3 Carbon radicals are classified as 1°, 2° or 3°. A carbon radical is sp 2 hybridized and trigonal planar, like sp 2 hybridized carbocations. The unhybridized p orbital contains the unpaired electron and extends above and below the trigonal planar carbon. Radical Reactions Introduction:

4. 4 Figure 15.1 The relative stability of 1° and 2° carbon radicals Radical Reactions Introduction:

5. 5 Radicals are formed from covalent bonds by adding energy in the form of heat (  ) or light (h ). Some radical reactions are carried out in the presence of a radical initiator. Radical initiators contain an especially weak bond that serves as a source of radicals. Peroxides, compounds having the general structure RO—OR, are the most commonly used radical initiators. Heating a peroxide readily causes homolysis of the weak O—O bond, forming two RO radicals. Radicals undergo two main types of reactions: they react with  bonds, and they add to  bonds. General Features of Radical Reactions: Radical Reactions

6. 6 A radical X abstracts a hydrogen atom from a C—H  bond to from H—X and a carbon radical. Reaction of a Radical X with a C-H Bond: A radical X also adds to the  bond of a carbon—carbon double bond. Radical Reactions Reaction of a Radical X with a C=C Bond:

7. 7 In the presence of heat or light, alkanes react with halogens to form alkyl halides. Halogenation of alkanes is a radical substitution reaction. Halogenation of alkanes is only useful with Cl 2 or Br 2. Reaction with F 2 is too violent, and reaction with I 2 is too slow to be useful. With an alkane that has more than one type of hydrogen atom, a mixture of alkyl halides may result. Halogenation of Alkanes: Radical Reactions

8. 8 When a single hydrogen atom on a carbon has been replaced by a halogen atom, monohalogenation has taken place. When excess halogen is used, it is possible to replace more than one hydrogen atom on a single carbon with halogen atoms. Monohalogenation can be achieved experimentally by adding halogen X 2 to an excess of alkane. When asked to draw the products of halogenation of an alkane, draw the products of monohalogenation only, unless specifically directed to do otherwise. Figure 15.2 Complete halogenation of CH 4 using excess Cl 2 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Alkanes:

9. 9 Three facts about halogenation suggest that the mechanism involves radical, not ionic, intermediates: Halogenation of Alkanes: Reaction Mechanism Radical Reactions

10. 10 Radical halogenation has three distinct steps. A mechanism (such as that observed in radical halogenation) that involves two or more repeating steps is called a chain mechanism. The most important steps of radical halogenation are those that lead to product formation: the propagation steps. Radical Reactions Halogenation of Alkanes: Reaction Mechanism

11. 11 Radical Reactions—Mechanism

12. 12 STEP 1: CH 4 + X· => CH 3 · + H-X Bond Dissociation ΔH Ea kcal/mol kcal/mol kcal/molkcal/mol F 104 136 -32 ~ 1.2 Cl 104 103 +1 ~ 4 Br 104 88 +16 ~ 18 I 104 71 +33 ~ 34 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Methane see B ond Energies in T able 6-2, pg 207.

13. 13 STEP 2: CH 3 · + X 2 ==> CH 3 -X + X· Bond Dissociation ΔH Ea kcal/mol kcal/molkcal/molkcal/mol F 38 109 -71 ~ 1 Cl 58 84 -26 ~ 1 Br 46 70 -24 ~ 1 I 36 56 -20 ~ 1 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Methane see B ond Energies in T able 6-2, pg 207.

14. 14 SUM OF STEPS 1 + 2: Step 1 Step 2 ΔH kcal/molkcal/molkcal/mol F -32 -71 -103 Cl +1 -26 -25 Br +16 -24 -8 I +33 -20 +13 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Methane – bond energies:

15. 15 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Methane – bond energies: PLOT OF STEPS 1 + 2:values in Kcal/mol F Cl Br I +1.2 +4 +18 +34Ea -103 -25 -8 +13ΔH

16. 16 Figure 15.3 Energy changes in the propagation steps during the chlorination of ethane Radical Reactions Halogenation of Alkanes: Reaction Mechanism

17. 17 Halogenation of Alkanes: Energetics Figure 15.4 Energy diagram for the propagation steps in the chlorination of ethane Radical Reactions

18. 18 Chlorination of CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 affords a 1:1 mixture of CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 Cl and (CH 3 ) 2 CHCl. Note that CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 has six 1 ° hydrogens and only two 2 ° hydrogens, so the expected product ratio of CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 Cl to (CH 3 ) 2 CHCl (assuming all hydrogens are equally reactive) is 3:1. Halogenation of Alkanes: Chlorination of Propane Radical Reactions

19. 19 Since the observed ratio between CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 Cl and (CH 3 ) 2 CHCl is 1:1, the 2 ° C—H bonds must be more reactive than the 1 ° C—H bonds. Thus, when alkanes react with Cl 2, a mixture of products results, with more product formed by cleavage of the weaker C—H bond than you would expect on statistical grounds. Radical Reactions Halogenation of Alkanes:

20. 20 Although alkanes undergo radical substitutions with both Cl 2 and Br 2, chlorination and bromination exhibit two important differences. 1.Chlorination is faster than bromination. 2.Chlorination is less selective, yielding a mixture of products and bromination is more selective, often yielding one major product. Chlorination versus Bromination: Radical Reactions

21. 21 The differences in chlorination and bromination can be explained by considering the energetics of each type of reaction. Calculating the  H 0 using bond dissociation energies reveals that abstraction of a 1 ° or 2 ° hydrogen by Br is endothermic, but it takes less energy to form the more stable 2 ° radical. Radical Reactions Chlorination versus Bromination:

22. 22 Conclusion: Because the rate-determining step is endothermic, the more stable radical is formed faster, and often a single radical halogenation product predominates. Figure 15.5 Energy diagram for the endothermic reaction: CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 + Br → CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 or (CH 3 ) 2 CH + HBr Radical Reactions Chlorination versus Bromination:

23. 23 Calculating the  H ° using bond dissociation energies for chlorination reveals that abstraction of a 1 ° or 2 ° hydrogen by Cl is exothermic. Since chlorination has an exothermic rate-determining step, the transition state to form both radicals resembles the same starting material, CH 3 CH 2 CH 3. Thus, the relative stability of the two radicals is much less important, and both radicals are formed. Radical Reactions Chlorination versus Bromination:

24. 24 Conclusion: Because the rate-determining step in chlorination is exothermic, the transition state resembles the starting material, both radicals are formed, and a mixture of products results. Figure 15.6 Energy diagram for the exothermic reaction: CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 + CI → CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 or (CH 3 ) 2 CH + HCI Radical Reactions Chlorination versus Bromination:

25. 25 Reactivity: The tendency of a reagent to react with a given compound. Chlorine is more reactive toward alkanes than is bromine. Selectivity: The choice of reaction site by the reagent. Bromine is more selective in reaction with alkanes than is chlorine. Regioselectivity: The preference of one product over others in a reaction where multiple reaction sites exist. Bromine is regioselective and chlorine is not. Halogenation of Alkanes: Terms Radical Reactions

26. 26 Stereochemistry of Halogenation: Radical Reactions

27. 27 Halogenation of an achiral starting material such as CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 forms two constitutional isomers by replacement of either a 1° or 2° hydrogen. 1-Chlorobutane has no stereogenic centers and is thus achiral. 2-Chlorobutane has a new stereogenic center, and so an equal amount of two enantiomers must form (a racemic mixture). Radical Reactions Stereochemistry of Halogenation:

28. 28 A racemic mixture results because the first propagation step generates a planar sp 2 hybridized radical. Cl 2 then reacts with it from either side to form an equal amount of two enantiomers. Radical Reactions Stereochemistry of Halogenation:

29. 29 An allylic carbon is a carbon adjacent to a double bond. Homolysis of the allylic C—H bond in propene generates an allylic radical which has an unpaired electron on the carbon adjacent to the double bond. Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon: The bond dissociation energy for this process is even less than that for a 3 0 C—H bond (91 kcal/mol). This means that an allyl radical is more stable than a 3 0 radical. Radical Reactions 104 98 95 91 87 kcal/mol

30. 30 The allyl radical is more stable than other radicals because two resonance forms can be drawn for it. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

31. 31 Because allylic C—H bonds are weaker than other sp 3 hybridized C—H bonds, the allylic carbon can be selectively halogenated using NBS in the presence of light or peroxides. NBS contains a weak N—Br bond that is homolytically cleaved with light to generate a bromine radical, initiating an allylic halogenation reaction. Propagation then consists of the usual two steps of radical halogenation. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

32. 32 Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

33. 33 NBS also generates a low concentration of Br 2 needed in the second chain propagation step (Step [3] of the mechanism). The HBr formed in Step [2] reacts with NBS to form Br 2, which is then used for halogenation in Step [3] of the mechanism. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

34. 34 Thus, an alkene with allylic C—H bonds undergoes two different reactions depending on the reaction conditions. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

35. 35 Question: Why does a low concentration of Br 2 (from NBS) favor allylic substitution (over ionic addition to form the dibromide)? Answer: The key to getting substitution is to have a low concentration of bromine (Br 2 ). The Br 2 produced from NBS is present in very low concentrations. (Answer is continued on next slide.) Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

36. 36 A low concentration of Br 2 would first react with the double bond to form a low concentration of the bridged bromonium ion. The bridged bromonium ion must then react with more bromine (in the form of Br¯) in a second step to form the dibromide. If concentrations of both intermediates—the bromonium ion and Br¯ are low (as is the case here), the overall rate of addition is very slow, and the products of the very fast and facile radical chain reaction predominate. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

37. 37 Halogenation at an allylic carbon often results in a mixture of products. Consider the following example: A mixture results because the reaction proceeds by way of a resonance stabilized radical. Radical Reactions Radical Halogenation at an Allylic Carbon:

38. 38 An antioxidant is a compound that stops an oxidation from occurring (a radical scavenger). Naturally occurring antioxidants such as vitamin E prevent radical reactions that can cause cell damage. Synthetic antioxidants such as BHT, butylated hydroxy toluene, are added to packaged and prepared foods to prevent oxidation and spoilage. Vitamin E and BHT are radical inhibitors, so they terminate radical chain mechanisms by reacting with the radical. Antioxidants: Radical Reactions

39. 39 To trap free radicals, both vitamin E and BHT use a hydroxy group bonded to a benzene ring, a general structure called a phenol. Radicals (R) abstract a hydrogen atom from the OH group of an antioxidant, forming a new resonance-stabilized radical. This new radical does not participate in chain propagation, but rather terminates the chain and halts the oxidation process. Because oxidative damage to lipids in cells is thought to play a role in the aging process, many anti-aging formulations contain antioxidants. Radical Reactions Antioxidants:

40. 40 HBr adds to alkenes to form alkyl bromides in the presence of heat, light, or peroxides. The regioselectivity of the addition to unsymmetrical alkenes is different from that in addition of HBr in the absence of heat, light or peroxides. Radical Additions to Double Bonds: The addition of HBr to alkenes in the presence of heat, light or peroxides proceeds via a radical mechanism. Radical Reactions

41. 41 Radical Reactions Radical Additions to Double Bonds:

42. 42 Note that in the first propagation step, the addition of Br to the double bond, there are two possible paths: 1.Path [A] forms the less stable 1 ° radical. 2.Path [B] forms the more stable 2 ° radical. The more stable 2° radical forms faster, so Path [B] is preferred. Radical Reactions Radical Additions to Double Bonds:

43. 43 The radical mechanism illustrates why the regio- selectivity of HBr addition is different depending on the reaction conditions. Radical Reactions Radical Additions to Double Bonds:

44. 44 HBr adds to alkenes under radical conditions, but HCl and HI do not. This can be explained by considering the energetics of the reactions using bond dissociation energies. Both propagation steps for HBr addition are exothermic, so propagation is exothermic (energetically favorable) overall. For addition of HCl or HI, one of the chain propagating steps is quite endothermic, and thus too difficult to be part of a repeating chain mechanism. Figure 15.9 Energy changes during the propagation steps: CH 2 = CH 2 + HBr → CH 3 CH 2 Br Radical Reactions Radical Additions to Double Bonds:

45. 45 Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units of smaller molecules called monomers. They include biologically important compounds such as proteins and carbohydrates, as well as synthetic plastics such as polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene. Polymerization is the joining together of monomers to make polymers. For example, joining ethylene monomers together forms the polymer polyethylene, a plastic used in milk containers and plastic bags. Polymers and Polymerization: Radical Reactions

46. 46 Many ethylene derivatives having the general structure CH 2 =CHZ are also used as monomers for polymerization. The identity of Z affects the physical properties of the resulting polymer. Polymerization of CH 2 =CHZ usually affords polymers with Z groups on every other carbon atom in the chain. Radical Reactions Polymers and Polymerization:

47. 47 Polymers and Polymerization

48. 48 Radical Reactions Polymers and Polymerization:

49. 49 In radical polymerization, the more substituted radical always adds to the less substituted end of the monomer, a process called head-to-tail polymerization. Radical Reactions Polymers and Polymerization: