1. …and the implications for earthquake induced landslides.
Can topographic amplification be predicted from Rock Mass Classification?
…and the implications for earthquake induced landslides.
Dr Bill Murphy, The School of Earth & Environment The University of Leeds. Leeds. United Kingdom

3. Outline Brief acknowledgements.
Topographic amplification – what is it?
Rock mass classification and theoretical background
Do calculated wave velocities appear consistent with other models and field observations?
What are the implications for landslides caused by earthquakes.
Quo Vadis?

4. Topographic amplification
A seismic response of slopes giving accelerations 2-5 times above background motions (Faccioli; 2002);
A function of wavelength, orientation and slope geometry (Ashford et al 1997).
Case examples seen during Northridge (Tarzana); and Chi Chi earthquakes.

5. From: Sepulveda, S. A. , Murphy, W. , Jibson, R. W. , & Petley, D. N
From: Sepulveda, S. A., Murphy, W., Jibson, R. W., & Petley, D.N Seismically induced rock slope failures resulting from topographic amplification of strong ground motions: The case of Pacoima Canyon, California Engineering Geology, 80, 336– 348

6. From: Sepúlveda, S.A., Murphy, W. & Petley, D.N. 2005.
Topographic controls on coseismic rock slides during the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan. QJEGH, 38,

7. From: Ashford, S. A. , Sitar, N. , Lysmer, J. and Deng, N. 1997
From: Ashford, S. A., Sitar, N., Lysmer, J. and Deng, N Topographic Effects on the Seismic Response of Steep Slopes. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 87, (3),

8. Rock Mass classificationor
can ‘static’ empirical models ever link to ‘dynamic’ processes and responses?

9. What is rock mass classification?
Observational methods of classifying rock masses based on material properties, fracture state and water content.
Traditionally based on deep tunnels and mines and has been used to predict stand-up times.
Empirical correlations exist between rock mass classification schemes and Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown Strength parameters and elastic properties.
Correlations are normally derived for ‘static’ rather than ‘dynamic’ mass properties

10. GSI classification (Hoek, E. & Brown, E. T. (1997)
GSI classification (Hoek, E. & Brown, E. T. (1997). Estimation of rock mass strength. Intl Jl Rock Mech, Min Sci Geomech Abs, 34, ) and (right) the GSI system modified by Sonmez and Ulusay (1999).

11. Hoek. E & Diederichs, M. S Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 43, 203–215.

13. (top left) Impact of disturbance factor on Rock Mass Modulus of Elasticity and 4b Comparison between rock mass deformation modulus (each point is the average of multiple tests at the same site) from China and Taiwan with values calculated values with average D=0.5. (Hoek and Deiderich, 2006)

14. Where k is Bulk modulus; E is Young’s Moduls; e is Poisson’s Ratio, m is the shear modulus; eRM is Poisson’s Ratio for the intact material; ERM is Young’s Modulus for the rock mass.

15. Where Vp is the of P wave velocity; Vs is the shear wave velocity; k is the bulk modulus; m is the shear modulus and r is the density of the material.

16. Simple hypothesis…. Given these relationships can rock mass data predict shear wave velocities and then topographic amplification?

17. Main areas of uncertainty
Rock mass density
Rock mass Poisson’s Ratio
Variations in D both spatially and stratigraphically

18. Steeply dipping sedimentary sequences
strong (sandstones and siltstones) and weak (cleaved mudstones / slates) rocks juxtaposed
medium to thickly bedded
close to large spaced discontinuities
Slopes are large enough to be considered as homogenous and isotropic

19. Slopes were broken down on the basis of their geomorphology into slope facets.
Vs and Vp were calculated from rock mass data incorporating geotechnical uncertainty.
Seismic wave frequency from nearby records of ground motion were used to calculate seismic wavelength
A simple slope ratio was calculated.

21. NB. The frequency of calculated wave velocities incorporates geotechnical uncertainty NOT just discrete instability records.

22. NB. The frequency of calculated wave velocities incorporates geotechnical uncertainty NOT just discrete instability records.

23. Summary so far….

24. Excellent rock mass and lab data existed for the sites at Techi and Puli. Assessments of rock mass elasticity were constrained with lab measurements.
In spite of this a large range of uncertainty was encountered due to imprecision in determining disturbance factor.
While there appeared to be reasonable correlation between rock mass determined Vs and amplification as indicated by Ashford and Sitar, 1997, for the Techi site, for the Puli stream catchment site these relationships were poorer

25. The close proximity of a strong motion instrument at Techi provided a good estimate of frequency of vibration.
The lack of a good strong motion makes calculation of velocity at the Puli site prone to large errors.
There were also large variations in Disturbance Factor due to weathering of the rock mass at the Puli site – another source of uncertainty.

26. Büch, F Seismic Response Of Little Red Hill – Towards An Understanding Of Topographic Effects On Ground Motion And Rock Slope Failure. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Geological Sciences University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.

27. Büch, F Seismic Response Of Little Red Hill – Towards An Understanding Of Topographic Effects On Ground Motion And Rock Slope Failure. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Geological Sciences University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.

28. Seismological data were exceptionally high quality
Rock mass data were poor.
Results for this analysis were poor overall because of poor rock mass data.
At current state of knowledge poor rock mass constraints are more important than seismological constraints

29. Anecdotal Evidence
Slopes at Techi that failed during the Chi Chi earthquake showed evidence of disturbance. It is unclear whether such disturbance extended as deep as the landslides.
The failure of the slope at Las Colinas occurred in highly heterogenous materials with large velocity contrasts between lavas of andesitic composition (Vs c ms-1), pyroclastics (Vs c ms-1) and palaeosols.
Reports from Large Open Pits that have been subjected to strong earthquakes suggest that “loose, weathered materials” both inside LOPs and in natural slopes in the vicinity, are prone to failure during earthquakes but engineered ‘undisturbed’ slopes are not (pers. Comm. Dr John Read, CSIRO, 2008).

30. Calculated shear wave velocities with depth based on disturbance factor (D).
Disturbance Factors can be used as an analogue for weathered rock masses in naturally weathered slopes.
Amplitude of particle exciting increases as towards the free surface as energy cannot be transmitted out of low velocity zones as quickly as it arrives.
QUESTION – Does increasing wave amplitude cause anelastic deformation of the rock mass?

34. Vs
‘strength’ . . . . .

35. Where now???? What are we all doing for the next 10 years???

36. Rock engineering issues
There needs to be a better way of estimating shear wave velocity in the absence of Vs30 measurements.
We need more data on E and e for rock masses, especially for dynamic conditions.
Disturbance Factor needs to be constrained more tightly, there is too much subjectivity for such and important parameter.

37. science issues
We need to know how earthquake induced landslides ACTUALLY happen. Approximations are fine for Practice but these should be based on a good science case – not what we have done for 40 years!
How do weathered and disturbed rock masses – material, fractures AND water interact in the field?
Do slopes ‘yield’ without failing and if so what is the seismic response of these slopes? Field evidence suggests this happens.

38. Procedural issues
Inventories – do we need more information? Geotechnical data? Depths of sliding?
A common reporting mechanism – worldwide.
A central searchable database. A seismically induced landslide equivalent of NEIC earthquake database.