7 Political Parties Organizing Politics

7 Political Parties Organizing Politics
The balloon drop is the traditional grand finale of party nominating conventions.

7 Learning Objectives In this chapter we consider the role that political parties play in the American political system. We’ll begin by comparing political parties and interest groups and then look at party loyalty and party identification of voters. Next we’ll take a historical look at parties, studying how they’ve changed, how they’re funded, and their role in the electoral process. We’ll then differentiate the three political arenas in which the parties battle. After that we’ll turn back to a historical perspective to describe how national party nominating conventions have changed over the years. Finally, we’ll take a brief look at third parties and learn why the two-party system persists. Show how the relationship between organization and political power explains political parties and interest groups 7.1 Assess the trends regarding party identification and loyalty of voters 7.2

7 Learning Objectives Trace changes in political parties over the course of American history 7.3 Outline the functions and perceptions of the two major American political parties, explain how the parties are financed, and assess their changing role in the electoral process 7.4

7 Learning Objectives Differentiate among the three political arenas in which the parties battle 7.5 Describe changes in the function of the national party conventions 7.6

7 Learning Objectives Evaluate the role of third parties within the U.S. electoral system 7.7 Determine why the American two-party system has persisted 7.8

The Power of Organization
7.1 The Power of Organization Politics centers on organization. Organizing people is key to winning office and influencing public policy. Political organizations, such as parties and interest groups, serve as mediators between the people and government. Political parties are most concerned with organizing the electorate to win office, whereas interest groups are more concerned with influencing public policy. Interest groups only concern themselves with elections when doing so furthers their policy goals. Political organizations Parties Interest groups Informal division of functions Parties – elections Interest groups – policy

7.1 7.1 Which political organization is more concerned with winning elections than influencing policy? Here’s a quick review question about political parties and interest groups. Interest groups Political parties Both are concerned with elections Neither is concerned with elections

7.1 7.1 Which political organization is more concerned with winning elections than influencing policy? Parties care more about organizing the electorate to win political offices than about advancing specific public policies, which is the main concern of interest groups. Interest groups Political parties Both are concerned with elections Neither is concerned with elections

Party Voters 7.2 Realignment Dealignment Party Loyalty in Voting
More voters define themselves as Democrats than Republicans, and this has been true for the past 80 years. But Democratic Party identification is eroding as more voters call themselves Independents. Also, the fact that more voters identify as Democrats has not meant that the Democratic Party has dominated election outcomes. Realignment Dealignment Party Loyalty in Voting Red States, Blue States

7.2 FIGURE 7.1: Political democracy: Organizations as intermediaries
Political organizations serve as intermediaries between the people and government. Parties try to win elective offices and interest groups try to influence policymaking.

7.2 Donkey and elephant A popular nineteenth-century cartoonist, Thomas Nast, gave the Democratic and Republican parties their respective symbols of donkey and elephant. In Harper’s Weekly’s 1870s cartoons, Nast portrayed the Democratic Party as a stubborn mule “without pride of ancestry nor hope of posterity.” During this period of Republican Party dominance, Nast portrayed the Republican Party as an elephant, the biggest beast in the political jungle. Activity: Collect two political cartoons that make fun of the Republican and Democratic parties. Explain the historical context of the cartoons and indicate whether or not the image in the cartoon is still accurate about the parties today. Alternatively, ask your students to find political cartoons dealing with parties in the United States. Then ask them to analyze and discuss the cartoons.

Party identification is relatively stable, but occasionally a durable change in voter preferences occurs. We call these major shifts in electoral balance realignments. Realignments define political eras and they’re usually caused by some major shock to the political system involving race relations or the economy. At least four realigning elections have occurred in U.S. history: 1824 (Jackson, Democrats), 1860 (Lincoln, Republicans), 1896 (Bryan, Democrats), and 1932 (Roosevelt, Democrats). A party realignment occurred in the 1960s when the Democratic Party embraced civil rights and southern whites fled to the GOP, but Nixon’s Watergate scandal prevented the Republicans from experiencing the uninterrupted dominant era in presidential election victories that is normally part of a realignment. There hasn’t been a definitive realignment since then, and support for each party among different demographic groups has been stable. The number of voters who are self-described Independents has risen since the 1960s. As the parties become less attractive to voters, the electorate becomes less partisan. This process is called dealignment, and most scholars think we’ve been in a period of dealignment since the 1960s. Realignment Dealignment Party Loyalty in Voting Red States, Blue States

7.2 FIGURE 7.2: Party identification in the electorate
Which party used to have more adherents? When did this change? What has happened to the percentage of Americans identifying as Independents?

7.2 FIGURE 7.3: Who backs whom?: Social-group support for the Democratic and Republican parties How do race, education, income, and religious affiliation affect party support?

7.2 FIGURE 7.4: Who voted how?: Republican, Democratic, and Independent voters in presidential elections Registered members of which party are more likely to cross over and vote for the other party’s presidential candidate?

Despite dealignment, party identification remains a strong influence on voter choice. This is most apparent in congressional and state elections. In the 1980s, Reagan earned crossover votes from Democrats, who were called “Reagan Democrats.” But these voters did not shift their congressional and state election votes to the Republican Party, so we can’t say that a true party realignment occurred. The Republican and Democratic parties are far from equally competitive in every state. The Democratic Party is strongest in coastal states and northern states, and the Republican Party’s strength lies in Southern, Midwestern, and Mountain states. Realignment Dealignment Party Loyalty in Voting Red States, Blue States

7.2 FIGURE 7.5: Red states, blue states
In what region is the Democratic Party strongest? In which regions does the Republican Party dominate? Activity: Ask your students to develop predictions and explain their reasoning for what the electoral map will look like fifty years from now.

7.2 7.2 How many definite party realignments have occurred in U.S. history? Let’s answer a brief review question about party realignments. 4 6 3 No one knows for sure

7.2 7.2 How many definite party realignments have occurred in U.S. history? Four definite party realignments have occurred in U.S. history: 1824 (Jackson, Democrats), 1860 (Lincoln, Republicans), (Bryan, Democrats), and (Roosevelt, Democrats). Scholars are divided as to whether any realignments have occurred since. 4 6 3 No one knows for sure

A Historical Perspective
7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective There is no mention of political parties in the U.S. Constitution. The Founders did not anticipate their existence. They designed the government to protect against what they termed “the mischief of factions,” which today we would call interest groups, but they were unprepared for the development of parties. We noted in the previous section that there have been several distinct eras in American political history. In this section we’ll look at each of them more closely. Emergent Party System: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans System of ’24: Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs System of ’60: Battlefield Sectionalism and Republican Dominance System of ’96: Gilded Age Realignment

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective Republican Split, Democratic Win System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective The first political parties formed during the administration of the first president, George Washington. The Federalists, who, if you recall, had been in favor of ratifying the Constitution, formed the Federalist Party. Leaders of the Federalist Party included Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, who favored a strong national government and the creation of a national bank to repay states’ Revolutionary War debts. Thomas Jefferson and other Anti-Federalists, who’d been opposed to the ratification of the Constitution, formed the Democratic-Republican Party. Adams defeated Jefferson in the presidential election of 1796, the first election in which candidates campaigned as members of opposing political parties. The election of 1800 saw Jefferson and his Democratic-Republicans capture the presidency and both houses of Congress. This was a landmark election, with its peaceful transfer of power from one faction to another. Jefferson won reelection in 1804 and the Democratic-Republican Party retained control of government until the Federalist Party faded away. For a brief time, it looked like party politics had ended. Emergent Party System: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans System of ’24: Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs System of ’60: Battlefield Sectionalism and Republican Dominance System of ’96: Gilded Age Realignment

7.3 FIGURE 7.6: Change and continuity: American party system, Although the parties have changed their names and their platforms, and spawned brief offshoots, America has always had a two-party system. Can you explain why? The answer is simple, and obvious when you think about it.

American Parties: A Historical Perspective
7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective After Andrew Jackson lost the 1824 presidential election to John Quincy Adams, he led a faction that split off from the Democratic-Republican Party to form the Democratic Party. The Democratic Party sought to expand its support by eliminating state property requirements for voting. The electorate expanded from 365,000 voters in 1824 to well over a million in 1828 and over 2 million in 1840. Jackson’s strategy of national campaigning and popular organizing carried him to victory in the 1824 presidential election. His opponents formed the Whig Party, which adopted the same strategies with some success but eventually dissolved because of internal disagreements over slavery. The slavery issue divided the entire nation. The Republican Party formed in 1854 to oppose the spread of slavery to the western territories. The presidential election of 1860 was won by the Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln. After the Civil War, the Republican Party dominated most elections through the end of the 19th century, with the Democratic Party finding strength mainly in the former slave states. Emergent Party System: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans System of ’24: Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs System of ’60: Battlefield Sectionalism and Republican Dominance System of ’96: Gilded Age Realignment

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective The election of 1896 was the most expensive and had the highest turnout up to that point in U.S. history. The Democrats nominated a religious fundamentalist, William Jennings Bryan, who had a populist appeal. He tried to attract “have-not” white farmers who were suffering from the recent stock market crash by promising them inflated cheap currency to pay their debts. The Republican Party tried to attract industrial workers and owners with promises of protectionist tariff policies, as well as appealing to black voters and non-fundamentalist Christians. The Republican victory in 1896 ushered in an era of Republican dominance in which the GOP lost only two presidential elections, both to Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Wilson only won in 1912 because Republican Theodore Roosevelt decided to run as a third party candidate, splitting the Republican Party vote. Emergent Party System: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans System of ’24: Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs System of ’60: Battlefield Sectionalism and Republican Dominance System of ’96: Gilded Age Realignment Republican Split, Democratic Win

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective It was economic crisis that ended Democratic dominance in 1896 and it was the same problem that doomed the Republican Party in The Great Depression moved the voters to oust Republican President Herbert Hoover for Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised the country a “New Deal.” The New Deal Democratic coalition consisted of working class voters, an increasing number of whom were union members, white ethnic groups, such as Jews and Catholics, and some African Americans, who left the Republican Party for the promise of social gains in the Democratic Party. System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 Inspiring confidence This photo shows Franklin Roosevelt campaigning among coal miners in West Virginia during the presidential election campaign of Roosevelt’s optimism and “can do” attitude in the face of the Great Depression helped cement the New Deal Democratic coalition that won him the presidency.

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective Social and economic upheaval in the 1960s steadily eroded Democratic Party support. President Johnson’s support of civil rights caused southern whites to switch to the Republican Party. Johnson’s handling of the unpopular Vietnam War further damaged his party. When he chose not to run for reelection in 1968, segregationist George Wallace ran as a third party anti–civil rights candidate and siphoned off the electoral votes of the southern states, helping Republican candidate Richard Nixon to win. In 1972, the Democratic Party was painted as the party of feminists, anti-war protesters, and civil rights advocates, which led to Nixon’s reelection. The Republican Party’s dominance was briefly checked by the Watergate scandal, and there’s been no clear realignment since. There’s been more of a dealignment, with party organizations weakening and divided government the norm. System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective Reagan’s victories in 1980 and 1984, followed by George H.W. Bush’s election in 1988, would seem to indicate that a Republican realignment had occurred. Indeed, sizable numbers of former Democratic voters, such as ethnic whites and working class social conservatives, turned to the Republican Party for social reasons, while economic conservatives hoped to see decreased government regulations and lower taxes. Reagan’s support came from voters who wanted to see increased military spending during the Cold War. They got that, but later the end of the Cold War left social conservatives as the main remaining block of the Reagan Coalition. System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 Power of unity Reagan created a Republican majority coalition in the 1980s by uniting Republican factions—economic conservatives, social conservatives, religious fundamentalists, and anticommunists—and adding many southern white Democrats.

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective The Democrats won just one presidential election between 1968 and 1988, but they retained control of the House and many state governments. They continued to be seen as the party of minorities, poor people, and social activists until the 1990s, when the party widened its appeal to economically and socially conservative middle class voters. However, in the midterm election, the Republicans gained control of Congress for the first time since 1954. Bill Clinton was reelected in 1996, but the Republicans retained Congress. Clinton portrayed himself as a moderate confronting extremists in Congress, but the electorate continued to vote out moderate lawmakers of both parties, leaving Congress increasingly polarized. System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 American Parties: A Historical Perspective The 2000 election saw the nation more evenly divided between the two parties than ever. Al Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Court to George W. Bush. Control of each chamber of Congress hinged on only a few seats. In 2004, the Republicans solidified their control of government, but increasingly unpopular wars and a faltering economy ended their reign in They gained seats in 2010 as confidence in the Democrats’ ability to fix the economy quickly began to wane. There is disagreement among scholars about whether the 1930s New Deal realignment was the last one or whether the Republican Party under Reagan constituted a realignment. But everyone agrees that we have entered an era of party polarization, with party leaders and bases more polarized than at any other time in history. System of ’32: New Deal Democratic Party Turmoil and the Great Dealignment Reagan ’80 as Realignment 1992 to Today: Era of Polarization A Nation Divided Recent Realignment?

7.3 7.3 Since the 1960s, the Republican Party has gained which elements of the electorate? As we’ve seen, sometimes there are shifts of whole groups from one party to another. Can you answer this review question about recent changes in party identification? Southern whites Social conservatives Business owners All of the above

7.3 7.3 Since the 1960s, the Republican Party has gained which elements of the electorate? Southern whites fled the Democratic Party when its leaders began to embrace civil rights. Social conservatives turned to the Republican Party with the advent of liberal social policies and feminism. Business owners, upset over union power, taxes, and government regulation, also sought refuge in the Republican Party. Southern whites Social conservatives Business owners All of the above

Political Parties and Democratic Government
7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government Are political parties essential to democratic government? Parties have developed in all of the world’s democracies, which would seem to testify to their importance. But parties in the U.S. have lost their preeminent position as instruments of democracy. Other organizations in society, such as interest groups and the mass media, perform many of the functions traditionally executed by parties. Parties remain important mainly as a banner under which candidates must run. “Responsible” Parties in Theory But Winning Prevails over Principle Party and Ideology Erosion of Traditional Party Functions Divided Party Government Party Finances Partisan Tilt of Campaign Contributions Parties as Organizers of Elections

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government Early Party Conventions Party Primaries Types of Primaries Party Caucuses Americans Elect Internet Primary General Elections

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government In theory, political parties organize majorities around broad principles in order to win public office and enact these principles into law. If parties maintained clear principles and policy alternatives, and voters cast their ballot for one party or the other based upon these options, the winning party would have a mandate from a democratic majority to implement its vision for government. But reality is far from this neat picture. Winning has always been the goal for parties, and relying on particular principles or ideologies limits the appeal of a party. Each party tries to assemble a sufficient coalition of interests to attract a majority. Most voters are near the center of the ideological spectrum, so it’s counterproductive for parties to take strong policy positions in opposition to each other. This view is known as the median voter theorem. An alternative strategy, pursued by the Republican Party in particular, is to stake out clear ideological ground on divisive issues and make the opponent’s position appear unacceptable. This wedge issue theorem is used to activate the party base and force centrist voters to make a choice. “Responsible” Parties in Theory But Winning Prevails over Principle Party and Ideology Erosion of Traditional Party Functions Divided Party Government Party Finances Partisan Tilt of Campaign Contributions Parties as Organizers of Elections

7.4 FIGURE 7.7: Why parties drift to the center
Why must parties adopt more moderate ideological positions to win elections?

7.4 FIGURE 7.8: Why parties polarize
Sometimes individual issues can create a wedge between the two parties that turns off voters in the center, who stay home rather than vote for either party.

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government Voters today see the parties as occupying opposite poles. They think of the Republican Party as conservative and the Democratic Party as liberal. Republican Party supporters are apt to label themselves as conservatives, but Democratic Party followers tend to be moderates rather than liberals. The Democratic Party has played a progressive role on social issues, such as civil rights for minorities, women, and homosexuals, as well as issues like environmental protection. Democrats tend to be in favor of government providing a social safety net for the poor. Republicans support an assertive military and the free enterprise system. Many Republicans have traditional views on moral issues. Parties play only a limited role in elections today. They do not finance elections, as the candidates raise their money themselves. They no longer recruit candidates; candidates choose to run on their own, and voters select nominees in primary elections. Today, candidates use the mass media rather than party workers to communicate with voters directly. Most important, parties have no means of forcing elected officials to adhere to the party platform. They also no longer provide patronage jobs in exchange for votes. “Responsible” Parties in Theory But Winning Prevails over Principle Party and Ideology Erosion of Traditional Party Functions Divided Party Government Party Finances Partisan Tilt of Campaign Contributions Parties as Organizers of Elections

7.4 TABLE 7.1: Who votes for the parties? Party and ideology among voters Which party is favored by liberals? Which party is favored by conservatives? How about moderates? Do you see why each party tries to pick up votes from moderates?

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government Americans seem to prefer divided government. Only three presidents since World War II haven’t had to confront it at some point. Why do you think Americans tend to divide control of the legislative and executive branches between the parties? What would James Madison think of divided government? Although candidates raise a lot of their own money now, parties still raise hundreds of millions of dollars in election years. Activity: Ask: Why do Americans favor a divided party government? What are the advantages to this type of government? What are the disadvantages? Is a divided party government more effective than a government with one party in charge of both the executive and legislative branches? How does the preference for divided government reconcile with increasing polarization in Congress? Consider using a segment from President Barack Obama’s address to the 2004 Democratic National Convention ( which challenges the idea of polarization. “Responsible” Parties in Theory But Winning Prevails over Principle Party and Ideology Erosion of Traditional Party Functions Divided Party Government Party Finances Partisan Tilt of Campaign Contributions Parties as Organizers of Elections

7.4 TABLE 7.2: Where’s the money?: Party finances in millions
Both parties and candidates solicit campaign contributions. Which party is generally more successful at fundraising?

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government The Republican Party has usually been able to raise more money than the Democratic Party. The sources of contributions overlap between the parties, but there are certain patterns that emerge in which type of donor favors which party. Parties organize electoral choices for voters, since candidates have to run as either Democrats or Republicans, and only one candidate can get the nomination for each party. Party leaders used to select candidates at nominating conventions, but now candidates are chosen via primary elections. Candidates can run as independent or third-party candidates, but few of them are elected. Some local elections are nonpartisan, meaning that candidates do not have to affiliate with either party. “Responsible” Parties in Theory But Winning Prevails over Principle Party and Ideology Erosion of Traditional Party Functions Divided Party Government Party Finances Partisan Tilt of Campaign Contributions Parties as Organizers of Elections

7.4 TABLE 7.3: Who finances the parties?: Contributors to the Republican and Democratic parties by sector Which industries and professions contribute to both parties? Which contribute to only one party or the other?

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government The caucus was the earliest nominating process used by parties. Party leaders would meet regionally and decide on the party’s slate of nominees. As support for democracy increased and party members complained about being excluded from nominating nominating candidates, the process was changed so that local party organizations could send delegates to party nominating conventions. Andrew Jackson was the first president to be nominated by convention. In the early twentieth century, the nominating process was further democratized with the introduction of primary elections, which allowed the voters to choose the party’s nominees directly. This move weakened the power of party leaders. Early Party Conventions Party Primaries Types of Primaries Party Caucuses Americans Elect Internet Primary General Elections

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government How primaries are conducted varies by state. Some states hold closed primaries, in which only registered party members can participate. In such states, people sometimes register with a party just to be able to vote in its primary. In contrast, states with open primaries allow voters to pick whichever party’s primary they want to vote in. Opponents allege that voters can vote strategically to defeat candidates in the party they oppose, although there’s little evidence that many voters bother to do this. Some states hold caucuses instead of primary elections. The most famous are the presidential caucuses held in Iowa. Caucuses attract motivated voters because they take the form of gatherings of party members to discuss who will be their nominee. Early Party Conventions Party Primaries Types of Primaries Party Caucuses Americans Elect Internet Primary General Elections

7.4 Political Parties and Democratic Government Backed by major financial donors, Americans Elect sought out ballot positions in several states to nominate a bipartisan ticket using an Internet convention. The system failed to produce a nominee under its own rules, thereby demonstrating that a nomination mechanism without an organization has difficulty capturing legitimacy in the political public. General elections are held on the first Tuesday in November. The Democratic and Republican Party nominees appear on the ballot and independent and third party candidates can appear as well, if they have gathered the number of signatures that their state requires. The barrier can be set quite high—as much as 10% of registered voters. Early Party Conventions Party Primaries Types of Primaries Party Caucuses Americans Elect Internet Primary General Elections

7.4 How were party nominees originally selected?
See if you can answer this review question about early elections in the U.S. By caucuses in each state By nominating conventions By primary elections By party leaders

7.4 How were party nominees originally selected?
Nominees were originally selected by party leaders until complaints about the undemocratic nature of this selection process led to nominating conventions and later to primary elections and caucuses. By caucuses in each state By nominating conventions By primary elections By party leaders

Where’s the Party? 7.5 Party-in-the-Electorate Party-in-the-Government
The major parties are active in three arenas, which we define as the party-in-the-electorate, the party-in-government, and the party as organization. Party-in-the-Electorate Party-in-the-Government Party as Organization National Party Structure State Party Organizations County Committees

The party-in-the-electorate consists of voters who identify themselves as Republican or Democrat and consistently vote for candidates of their party. Party loyalty has been weakening since the late 1960s. Fewer voters are registered with a party and there has been an increase in ticket-splitting. However, since 1998, party-line voting has been on the upswing. Party-in-the-government comprises officials who have been nominated and won election to office. Party identification and loyalty is generally stronger among office holders than among the party-in-the-electorate. Party members caucus together in the legislature, and elect party leaders. Party-in-the-Electorate Party-in-the-Government Party as Organization National Party Structure State Party Organizations County Committees

7.5 FIGURE 7.9: Where’s the party?
Even among Americans who strongly identify with a major party, there are differences among those who are strictly members of the party-in-the-electorate (voters), those who are members of the party-in-the-government (elected officials), and those who are members of the party organization (national and state party committee members).

National, state, and local party organizations exist independently from one another. Their structure resembles the American federal system, except that state committees aren’t responsible to the national committee. The national party conventions hold formal authority over the parties. They meet every four years to nominate candidates, adopt a party platform, choose party officers, and adopt operational rules. But the convention’s role is largely a rubber-stamping formality. The National Committee of each party is made of up delegates who govern party affairs between conventions. The national chair is the head of the party and is usually replaced if the party loses a major election. Party-in-the-Electorate Party-in-the-Government Party as Organization National Party Structure State Party Organizations County Committees

State party organizations vary in their composition, organization, and functions. They usually consist of a state chair, a state committee, and full-time staff. These organizations raise funds and provide services to candidates. They conduct registration drives, polling, and research, and recruit candidates for local elections as needed. Each party has 3,000 county chairs, who form the most important building blocks of party organization. They are chosen in local primary elections and cannot be removed by state or national party authorities. Party-in-the-Electorate Party-in-the-Government Party as Organization National Party Structure State Party Organizations County Committees

7.5 What is the party-in-the- electorate?
As we’ve seen, the major parties are active in three arenas. Try to answer this question about one of the arenas. Local party committee members Voters who consistently vote for one party Delegates to party nominating conventions Elected officials who are loyal to their party

7.5 What is the party-in-the- electorate?
The party-in-the-electorate consists of voters who generally vote for candidates of their party only. The number of these voters was declining until recently. Local party committee members Voters who consistently vote for one party Delegates to party nominating conventions Elected officials who are loyal to their party

National Party Conventions
7.6 National Party Conventions Since the nominees have already been selected via primary elections and caucuses, modern party conventions are largely media events, staged and televised to present an attractive image of the party. They’re glorified political rallies designed to generate enthusiasm for the party’s nominees. Convention Delegates Making Party Rules Party Platforms Selecting a Running Mate Campaign Kickoff Volunteers: Life of the Party

Conventions produce memorable moments
7.6 Conventions produce memorable moments Because today’s presidential candidates have already been chosen by the time of the national conventions, these events are more like pep rallies and entertainments than serious business meetings. The 2012 Democratic National Convention featured one of the finest political speeches ever, by former president Bill Clinton. Clinton’s old-school speech often departed from the original script, but it brought Democratic partisans to their feet in response to “The Natural,” as Clinton was nicknamed by political writer Joe Klein.

7.6 National Party Conventions Party delegates are more ideologically motivated and strongly committed to their party’s presidential candidate than the average party member. Women and minorities are more likely to be Democratic than Republican delegates, and many delegates are involved in state and local party organizations. National party conventions make rules for the party, including rules governing the selection of delegates. One reason the Democratic Party has more women and minority delegates is that the party made their inclusion a priority when it drafted reform goals in 1972. Convention Delegates Making Party Rules Party Platforms Selecting a Running Mate Campaign Kickoff Volunteers: Life of the Party

7.6 FIGURE 7.10: Ideologies of party activists compared to voters
Party activists are more likely to hold extreme liberal or conservative views than the average voters. Why do you think this is?

7.6 National Party Conventions Party platforms are written at conventions, but these planks are largely symbolic since they’re not binding on elected officials. Since there’s no suspense at party conventions anymore, presidential nominees usually wait to announce their running mate until the convention in order to offer something newsworthy to attract media attention. Parties always accept the candidate’s choice of running mate. Convention Delegates Making Party Rules Party Platforms Selecting a Running Mate Campaign Kickoff Volunteers: Life of the Party

7.6 Spouse as candidate Michelle Obama speaks at the 2012 Democratic National Convention. Candidates’ spouses have been speaking at national conventions since 1992, when Barbara Bush and Hillary Clinton started the tradition.

7.6 National Party Conventions The presidential nominee’s acceptance speech on the final evening of the convention kicks off the general election campaign. Candidates’ families appear, sometimes for the first time, in front of a national audience, and party celebrities often put in an appearance. The celebratory atmosphere and display of party unity give each party a brief, small bump in the polls. Although candidates spend millions of dollars on election campaigns, state and local party organizations rely on volunteers to canvass, fundraise, and serve as poll workers. Volunteers are usually strong partisans, and may be drawn to party politics through family, workplace, church, or school. Convention Delegates Making Party Rules Party Platforms Selecting a Running Mate Campaign Kickoff Volunteers: Life of the Party

7.6 What are superdelegates?
Now answer this brief review question on the workings of national party conventions. Really good delegates Delegates who are chosen via local elections Delegates who have served at more than 10 conventions Delegates who are not pledged to a candidate

7.6 What are superdelegates?
Superdelegates aren’t pledged to a specific candidate. They’re chosen from among elected officials and party leaders who’re considered to be more moderate than the party activists who make up most of the delegations. The purpose of superdelegates is to help choose a nominee who’s more likely to win the general election. Really good delegates Delegates who are chosen via local elections Delegates who have served at more than 10 conventions Delegates who are not pledged to a candidate

Third Parties in the United States
7.7 Third Parties in the United States Although the U.S. has a two-party system, it’s worth taking a brief look at the minor parties that persist as a feature of American politics. Ideological Parties Protest Parties Single-Issue Parties Splinter Parties Anti-Party Party Third-Party Prospects

7.7 Third Parties in the United States Ideological parties don’t expect to win elections; they exist to promote their ideology and bring attention to their views. The socialist parties are a good example. They field candidates in every presidential election, but you’ve probably never heard of the parties or their candidates. Protest parties arise around a particular political issue. An example is the Populist Party that formed in the late 1800s in opposition to trusts and monopolies. Most protest movements prefer to work within one of the major parties because this is more effective. The civil rights and antiwar movements of the 1960s tried to work within the Democratic Party, for example. Ideological Parties Protest Parties Single-Issue Parties Splinter Parties Anti-Party Party Third-Party Prospects

7.7 Third Parties in the United States Single-issue parties are similar to protest parties but narrower in their focus. The Prohibition Party had the singular goal of outlawing alcohol, which they achieved for a brief period when the 18th Amendment was passed in The Green Party is another example of a single-issue party, although it’s spread its concern to include social justice, non-violence, and other issues not explicitly environmental. Splinter parties are formed by a dissatisfied faction within a major party. The Progressive Party fielded Theodore Roosevelt as its presidential candidate in Roosevelt had previously served as a Republican president and his candidacy on a third party ticket split the Republican vote and gave the election to the Democratic candidate in an era of Republican dominance. Southern whites disgruntled by the Democratic Party’s embrace of civil rights briefly formed the States’ Rights (Dixiecrat) Party but quickly found it more effective to switch to the Republican Party. Ideological Parties Protest Parties Single-Issue Parties Splinter Parties Anti-Party Party Third-Party Prospects

7.7 Third Parties in the United States We’ve noted that as Americans have become disillusioned with politics as usual, dealignment has occurred, with more voters declaring themselves independents rather than identifying with either party. Independents tend to be at the center of the political spectrum. In 1992, Texas billionaire Ross Perot tried to organize independent centrists into a viable third party called the Reform Party. He won 19% of the popular vote in the presidential election that year, but the Reform Party never did that well in subsequent elections and fizzled out by 2004. Americans favor the idea of a third party in theory, but voter support for any individual third party is never sufficient for the party to gain a foothold in electoral politics. Do you know why this is? Ideological Parties Protest Parties Single-Issue Parties Splinter Parties Anti-Party Party Third-Party Prospects

7.7 Table 7.4: Opposing the two-party system: Twentieth-century, third-party presidential votes Why have third-party candidates failed to win any electoral votes in the past 40 years?

7.7 7.7 Which party split the Republican vote in the presidential election of 1912? Can you answer this question about an election that took place a century ago? Socialist Prohibition Progressive Reform

7.7 7.7 Which party split the Republican vote in the presidential election of 1912? When Theodore Roosevelt failed to gain the Republican nomination for his attempt to regain the presidency in 1912, he ran under the banner of a new party that appealed to social and economic reformers of that era, the Progressive Party. Socialist Prohibition Progressive Reform

Why the Two-Party System Persists
7.8 Why the Two-Party System Persists Why is the two-party system so deeply ingrained in American politics? Other countries have multiple-party systems. Why don’t we? Cultural Consensus Winner-Takes-All Electoral System Legal Access to the Ballot

Why the Two-Party System Persists
7.8 Why the Two-Party System Persists The first explanation for the persistence of the two-party system is cultural. No party that disavows the American values of democracy, capitalism, free enterprise, individual liberty, religious freedom, and equality of opportunity has much of a chance of success because these views are so widely shared. Also, Americans cluster near the political center, which both major parties attempt to inhabit, leaving little room for a third party to stake out a unique position that would lure voters from either party. The main reason for the two-party system is the winner-take-all structure of elections. There’s no incentive for a party to form that appeals to less than half the electorate. In contrast, countries with multiparty systems have proportional representation; seats in the legislature are awarded in proportion to each party’s percentage of the electoral vote. A party that captures only a tiny percentage of the total vote is still guaranteed at least one seat. Finally, it’s costly for third parties to get on the ballot. They must collect large numbers of signatures and gain a certain percentage of the vote to remain on the ballot in subsequent elections or have access to political debates. Cultural Consensus Winner-Takes-All Electoral System Legal Access to the Ballot

7.7 What is the main reason that we have a two-party system?
7.8 7.7 What is the main reason that we have a two-party system? We’ve seen that there are several reasons for the persistence of the two-party system in the U.S. But what is the main reason? Cost of elections Winner-take-all elections Third parties legally prohibited No new ideological space to take out

7.7 What is the main reason that we have a two-party system?
7.8 7.7 What is the main reason that we have a two-party system? Third parties are not prohibited. Cost can be a barrier, and so can the difficulty of staking out new but politically popular ideological space. But the main impediment to the formation of more than two parties is our winner-take-all electoral system, which provides no incentive for minor parties to join the fray. Cost of elections Winner-take-all elections Third parties legally prohibited No new ideological space to take out

7 Discussion Question What role do parties play in the electoral process? How has it changed over time?

7 Political Parties Organizing Politics

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