1. Biology: Life on Earth Eighth Edition Biology: Life on Earth Eighth Edition Lecture for Chapter 1 An Introduction to Life on Earth Lecture for Chapter 1 An Introduction to Life on Earth Copyright © 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Teresa Audesirk Gerald Audesirk Bruce E. Byers

3. Chapter 1 Outline 1.1 How Do Scientists Study Life? p. 2 1.2 Evolution: The Unifying Theory of Biology, p. 9 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living Things? p. 10 1.4 How Do Scientists Categorize the Diversity of Life? p. 14 1.5 How Does Knowledge of Biology Illuminate Everyday Life? p. 15

4. Section 1.1 Outline 1.1 How Do Scientists Study Life? –Life Can Be Studied at Different Levels of Organization –Scientific Principles Underlie All Scientific Inquiry –The Scientific Method is the Basis for Scientific Inquiry –Communication Is Crucial to Science –Science is a Human Endeavor –Scientific Theories Have Been Thoroughly Tested

5. Levels of Organization The living and nonliving world is organized at many levels

7. Levels of Organization All matter is formed of elements An atom is the smallest particle of an element retaining the properties of an element Atoms combine to form molecules Molecules provide the building blocks for cells, the smallest unit of life

11. Levels of Organization Some forms of life consist of single cells In multicellular forms cells combine to form tissues Tissues combine to form organs, which can be united as organ systems Multicellular organisms are composed of multiple organ systems

16. Levels of Organization Organisms of the same type that are capable of interbreeding are called a species A group of organisms of the same species living in a given area is a population Interacting populations make up a community

19. Levels of Organization A community and its nonliving environment is an ecosystem The entire surface of the Earth, including living and nonliving components is the biosphere

20. Scientific Principles Biology is a scientific discipline All scientific inquiry is based on a small set of assumptions or principles –Natural causality –Uniformity in space and time –Similar perception

21. Natural Causality Historical approaches to studying life 1.Belief that some events happen through supernatural forces (e.g. the actions of Greek gods) 2.Belief that all events can be traced to natural causes that we can comprehend (natural causality) Corollary: Evidence gathered from nature has not been deliberately distorted to fool us

22. Natural Laws Apply Everywhere Natural laws are uniform in space and time This principle is key understanding biological events (e.g. evolution) that occurred before humans recorded them

23. Natural Laws Apply Everywhere Creationism is contrary to the principle of uniformity-in-time and natural causality –Creationists hold that different species were created one at a time by the direct intervention of a supernatural being, contrary to events we see happening today

24. Similar Perceptions Assumption that all human beings perceive natural events in fundamentally the same way Common perception allows us to accept observations of other humans as reliable

25. Similar Perceptions Common perception is usually not found in appreciation of art, poetry, and music, nor between cultures or religious beliefs –Value systems are subjective –Science requires objectively gathered data

27. The Scientific Method Scientific inquiry is a rigorous method for making observations The Scientific Method for inquiry follows 4 steps…

28. The Scientific Method 1.Observation of a phenomenon –Subsequent development of questions 2.Formulation of a hypothesis –A supposition that explains an observed phenomenon, leading to testable predictions

29. The Scientific Method 3.Testing through experimentation –Additional controlled observations 4.Development of a conclusion –Evaluation of hypothesis in light of experimental data

31. The Scientific Method Scientific experimentation tests the assertion that a single variable causes a particular observation The experiment must rule out the influence of other possible variables on the recorded observations

32. The Scientific Method Controls are incorporated into experiments Controls keep untested variables constant Scientific method is illustrated by Francesco Redi’s experiment

40. Application to Everyday Problems Assume you are late for an appointment and hurriedly try to start your car 1.Observation: The car won’t start

42. Application to Everyday Problems 2.Hypothesis: the battery is dead

44. Application to Everyday Problems 3.Experimental design: Replace your battery with another and restart the car

46. Application to Everyday Problems 4.Premature conclusion: The problem was a dead battery because the car starts when replaced with a different one

47. Application to Everyday Problems 5.Recognition of inadequate controls Did you attempt to start the car more than once? Was the battery cable on my original battery loose?

48. Application to Everyday Problems 6.Establishing a control a.Reinstall your old battery, check for tight cables, now try to start the car b.If car still fails to start on old battery, the only variable in this investigation now is the effectiveness of the battery

50. Application to Everyday Problems 7.Making a better conclusion, based on controlled experiments Your battery was probably dead

53. Limitations of the Scientific Method Can never be sure all untested variables are controlled Conclusions based on the experimental data must remain tentative

54. Limitations of the Scientific Method Results of experimentation must be communicated thoroughly and accurately to other scientists for repetition Repetition by other scientists add verification that findings can be used as the basis for further studies

55. Science Is a Human Endeavor Human personality traits are part of “real science” Scientists, like other people may be driven by pride, ambition, or fear Scientists sometimes make mistakes Accidents, lucky guesses, intellectual powers, and controversies with others contribute strongly to scientific advances

56. Science Is a Human Endeavor 1.In the 1920s, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming grew bacteria in cultures 2.One of the bacterial cultures became contaminated with a mold 3.Fleming nearly destroyed the culture when he noticed the mold (Penicillium) inhibited bacterial growth in the culture

58. Science is a Human Endeavor 4.Fleming hypothesized that the mold produced an antibacterial substance 5.Further tests using broth from pure Penicillium cultures lead to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin

59. Science is a Human Endeavor 6.Fleming continued beyond a lucky “accident” with further scientific investigation to a great discovery 7.“Chance favors the prepared mind” (Louis Pasteur)

60. Scientific Theory A scientific theory differs in definition from that of everyday usage –Many people use the word theory to mean hypothesis, and “educated guess”

61. Scientific Theory A scientific theory is a general explanation for important natural phenomena –It is extensively and reproducibly tested –It is more like a principle or natural law (e.g. the atomic, gravitational, and cell theories) –If compelling evidence arises, a theory may be modified

62. Scientific Theory New scientific evidence may prompt radical revision of existing theory Example: the discovery of prions…

63. Scientific Theory Before 1980, all known infectious diseases contained DNA or RNA In 1982, Stanley Prusiner showed that the infectious sheep disease scrapie is caused by a protein (a “protein infectious particle” or prion)

64. Scientific Theory Prions have since been shown to cause “mad cow disease” and diseases in humans The willingness of scientists to revise accepted belief in light of new data was critical to understanding and expanding the study of prions

65. Science Is Based on Reasoning Inductive Reasoning –Used in the development of scientific theories –A generalization is created from many observations –e.g., the cell theory (all living things are made of one or more cells) arises from many observations that all indicate a cellular basis for life

66. Science Is Based on Reasoning Deductive Reasoning –Generating hypotheses based on a well- supported generalization (such as a theory) –e.g., based on the cell theory, any newly discovered organism would be expected to be composed of cells

67. 1.2 Evolution: The Unifying Theory of Biology –Three natural processes underlie evolution –Much of organism variability is inherited –Natural selection preserves survival and reproductive genes Section 1.2 Outline

68. Unifying Theory of Biology Abundant evidence has been found to support evolutionary theory since Darwin and Wallace proposed it in the mid-1800s Those who see evolution as “just a theory” don’t understand the scientific definition of a theory

69. Unifying Theory of Biology Evolution explains how diverse forms of life originated through changes in their genetic makeup –Modern organisms descended with modification from pre-existing life forms –“Nothing in biology makes sense, except in the light of evolution” (Theodosius Dobzhansky)

70. Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace formulated the basis of our modern understanding of evolution Evolution arises as a consequence of three natural processes…

71. Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution 1.Genetic variation among members of a population 2.Inheritance of those variations by offspring of parents carrying the variation 3.Natural selection of individuals whose survival and enhanced reproduction are due to the favorable variations they carry

72. Genetic Variability Genetic variation arises from segments of DNA (genes) Changes in genes (mutation) alter the informational content Mutations arise from a number of sources –Mutations can occur from irradiation –Mutations occasionally arise from copying mistakes in DNA during cellular reproduction

74. Genetic Variability Effects of mutation –No effect (harmless) –A decrease in organism’s ability to function –Death of the organism –An increase in an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce (rare) Mutations occurring over millions of years and passed through many generations cause members of a species to be slightly different

75. Natural Selection Organisms that best meet environmental challenges leave the most offspring Natural selection preserves genes that help organisms flourish

76. Natural Selection Adaptations are structures, physiological process, or behaviors that aid in survival and reproduction Adaptations that are good for one environment may be poor in another

77. Natural Selection Species that cannot adapt to environmental change go extinct (e.g. the dinosaurs, illustrated by the Triceratops

79. Natural Selection The many different habitats (environments) in an area coupled with evolutionary adaptive processes produce species variety or biodiversity Humans are responsible for accelerating the rate of environmental change (and therefore the rate of extinction of species)

81. Section 1.3 Outline 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living Things? –Living Things Are Both Complex, Organized, and Composed of Cells –Living Things Respond to Stimuli –Living Things Maintain Relatively Constant Internal Conditions Through Homeostasis

82. Section 1.3 Outline 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living Things? (continued) –Living Things Acquire and Use Materials and Energy –Living Things Grow –Living Things Reproduce Themselves –Living Things as a Whole Have the Capacity to Evolve

83. Defining Life Dictionary definition of life is: –“the quality that distinguishes a vital and functioning being from a dead body” Living things are more than the sum of their parts; life is difficult to define The complexity and ordered interactions of parts in living things gives rise to certain emergent properties

84. Living Things Are Composed of Cells Living things are complex and organized

86. Living Things Are Composed of Cells The cell theory states that the cell is the basic unit of life A single cell has an elaborate internal structure

88. Living Things Are Composed of Cells All cells contain: –Genes that provide information to direct the cell –Organelles, small specialized structures that perform specific functions –A plasma membrane that encloses the fluid cytoplasm and organelles from the outside world

89. Homeostasis Organisms must maintain relatively constant internal conditions (homeostasis) –e.g. many organisms regulate body temperature

90. Homeostasis Homeostatic mechanisms include –Sweating in hot weather or dousing oneself with cool water –Metabolizing more food, basking in the sun, or turning up the thermostat in cold weather Organisms still grow and change while maintaining homeostasis

92. Living Things Respond to Stimuli Organisms sense and respond to internal and external environmental stimuli –Sensory organs in animals can detect and respond to external stimuli like light, sound, chemicals, etc. –Internal stimuli in animals are perceived by stretch, temperature, pain, and chemical receptors –Plants and bacteria respond to stimuli as well (e.g. plants to light, bacteria to available nutrients in the medium)

93. Living Things Acquire Materials Materials and energy required to maintain organization, to grow, and to reproduce

95. Living Things Acquire Materials Important materials (nutrients) acquired from air, water, soil, or other living things Nutrients are continuously recycled among living and nonliving things

100. Living Things Acquire Materials Nutrients are incorporated into the bodies of organisms Metabolism is the sum total of all the chemical reactions needed to sustain an organism’s life

101. Living Things Acquire Materials Organisms obtain energy in two ways –Plants and some single-celled organisms capture sunlight in photosynthesis. –Other organisms consume energy-rich molecules in the bodies of other organisms All energy that sustains life comes directly or indirectly from the sun

102. Living Things Grow Every organism becomes larger over time –Plants, bird, and mammals grow by producing more cells to increase their mass –Bacteria grow by enlarging their cells; they also divide to make more individuals Growth involves the conversion of acquired materials to molecules of the organism’s body

103. Living Things Reproduce Themselves Organisms give rise to offspring of the same type (reproduction) The parent’s genetic material (DNA) is passed on to the offspring, creating continuity of life Diversity of life occurs because offspring may be genetically different from their parents

104. Capacity to Evolve The genetic composition of a whole species changes over many generations Mutations and variable offspring allow a species to evolve

105. Capacity to Evolve Evolutionary theory states that modern organisms descended with modification from pre-existing life-forms Natural selection is a process where organisms with certain adaptations survive and reproduce more successfully than others

106. Section 1.4 Outline 1.4 How Do Scientists Categorize the Diversity of Life? –Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell Types in the Domains –Unicellularity and multicellularity in Bacteria, Archaea, and the kingdoms of Eukarya –Ways Organisms Acquire Energy

107. Categorizing Life Organisms can be grouped into three domains –Bacteria (single, simple cells) –Archaea (single, simple cells) –Eukarya (one or more highly complex cells)

109. Categorizing Life Domain Eukarya contains four subdivisions or kingdoms –Fungi –Plantae –Animalia –The “Protists”

110. Categorizing Life There are exceptions to any simple set of rules used to distinguish the domains and kingdoms, but three characteristics are particularly useful –Cell type –The number of cells in each organism –Energy acquisition

112. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Cell types named after presence or absence of a nucleus –The nucleus is a membrane-enclosed sac containing the cell’s genetic material

113. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Two cell types seen among all living things –Prokaryotic (“before nucleus” in Greek) Only 1-2 micrometers in diameter Lacking organelles or a nucleus Cell type found in Domains Bacteria and Archaea

114. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells –Eukaryotic (“true nucleus” in Greek) Larger than prokaryotic cells Contain a variety of organelles, including a nucleus Cell type found only among members of Domain Eukarya

115. Unicellularity vs. Multicellularity Unicellular (single-celled) organisms found in: –Bacteria –Archaea –The protists in Eukarya

116. Unicellularity vs. Multicellularity Multicellular (many-celled) organisms found in Eukarya –Kingdom Fungi –Kingdom Plantae –Kingdom Animalia

117. Ways Organisms Acquire Energy Autotrophs (“self-feeders”) –Photosynthetic organisms that capture sunlight and store it in sugar and fats –Includes plants, some bacteria, and some protists

118. Ways Organisms Acquire Energy Heterotrophs (“other-feeders”) –Organisms that acquire energy through ingesting molecules in the bodies of other organisms –Includes many archaeans, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals –Size of food eaten varies from individual food molecules to ingestion and digestion of whole chunks

119. 1.5 How Does Knowledge of Biology Illuminate Everyday Life? –Science is Part of Everyday Human Existence Section 1.5 Outline

120. Science Is Part of Everyday Human Existence We can use the scientific method as we observe things in nature Applying scientific thought to natural observations does not decrease one’s sense of wonder and appreciation

123. Science Is Part of Everyday Human Existence Scientific understanding and a sense of wonder about nature are not mutually exclusive