1. RESEARCH DESIGN CHE SU BT. MUSTAFFA (M: 90013) AHSGS COLLOQUIUM 2015 26/1/2014SOC

2. 222 Outline DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS QUANTITATIVE vs QUALITATIVE or COMBINED? ISSUES – Ontology – Epistemology – Axiology

3. 333 Introduction When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting critical dates for completion of project stages until we know what sort of building is being constructed. The first decision is whether we need a high rise office building, a factory for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential home or an apartment block. Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan, obtain permits, work out a work schedule or order materials.

4. 444 Introduction Social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan will follow from the project's research design. The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.

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6. 666 The generation of information and understanding (perhaps) consisting of as opposed to unsupported opinion New concepts New models New theories So we need evidence as opposed to anecdote Determinants are validity reliability generalisability What is research?

7. 777 7 Research design Research design  refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint that will guide the research process.

8. 888 Research design The research design answers the question: How are we going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses? What would be scope of my study?” or “What data do I need to collect?” or something like “What methods will I use to collect the data and how will I justify them?”

9. 999 Definitions A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served." Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of investigation to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance."

10. 10 A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures."

11. 11 when designing research we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way? in social research the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire, observation, document analysis), design of questions are all subsidiary to the matter of `What evidence do I need to collect?

12. 12 Function Research designs help researchers to lay out their research question, methodologies, implementation procedures, and data collection and analysis for the conduct of a research project. Generally there are three types of research design: quantitative, qualitative design, and mixed method design.

13. 13 Quantitative vs Qualitative design

14. 14 l Definitions of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Quantitative Research Quantitative research is an inquiry approach useful for describing trends and explaining the relationship among variables found in the literature. To conduct this inquiry, the investigator specifies narrow questions, locates or develops instruments using statistics. From the results of these analyzes, the researcher interprets the data using prior predictions and research studies. The final report, presented in standard format, display researcher objectivity and lack of bias. Qualitative Research Quantitative research is an inquiry approach useful for exploring and understanding a central phenomenon. To learn about this phenomenon, the inquirer asks participants broad, general questions, collects the detailed views of participants in the form of words or images, and analyzes the information for description and themes. From this data, the researcher interprets the meaning of the information drawing on personal reflections and past research. The structure of the final report is flexible, and it displays the researcher’s biases and thoughts.

15. 15 l Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Process of Research Steps in the Research Process Analyze and Interpret Data Report and Evaluate Collecting Data Specifying a Purpose Reviewing the Literature Identifying a Problem Quantitative Characteristics Qualitative Characteristics Description of trends and Explanation Oriented Exploratory/ Understanding a Central Phenomenon Major Role Justify Problem Minor Role Justify Problem Specific and Narrow Measurable/Observable General and Broad Participants’ Experience Pre-determined Instruments Numeric Data Large numbers Emerging Protocols Text or image data Small Number Statistical Description of Trends Comparisons/Predictions Text Analysis Description/Themes Larger meanings of findings Standard and Fixed Objective and Unbiased Flexible and Emerging Reflexive and Biased

16. 16 l Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Process of Research Steps in the Research Process Analyze and Interpret Data Report and Evaluate Collecting Data Specifying a Purpose Reviewing the Literature Identifying a Problem Research DesignsTwo Approaches Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Experimental Correlational Survey Ethnography Grounded Theory Narrative Mixed Action

17. 17 l Quantitative Designs and Uses Experimental Research Correlational Research Survey Research Explaining whether an intervention influences an outcome for one group as opposed to another group Associating or relating variables in a predictable pattern for one group of individuals Describing trends for the population of people Intervention Research Non-Intervention Research

18. 18 l Qualitative Research Designs and Uses Ethnographic Research Grounded Theory Research Narrative Research Exploring the shared culture of a people group Exploring common experiences of individuals to develop a theory Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people

19. 19 l Combined designs and uses Mixed Method Research Action Research Combining quantitative and qualitative data to best understand and explain a research problem. Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting

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21. 21 QuestionQuantitativeQualitative What is the purpose of the research? l To explain and predict l To confirm and validate l To test theory l To describe and explain l To explore and interpret l To build theory What is the nature of the research process? l Focused l Known variables l Established guidelines l Predetermined methods l Somewhat context-free l Detached view l Holistic l Unknown variables l Flexible guidelines l Emergent methods l Context-bound l Personal view

22. 22 QuestionQuantitativeQualitative What are the data like, and how are they collected? l Numeric data l Representative, large sample l Standardized instruments l Textual and/or image-based data l Informative, small sample l Loosely structured or nonstandardized observations and interviews How are data analyzed to determine their meaning? l Statistical analysis l Stress on objectivity l Deductive reasoning l Search for themes and categories l Acknowledgment that analysis is subjective and potentially biased l Inductive reasoning How are the findings communicated? l Numbers l Statistics, aggregated data l Formal voice,scientific style l Words l Narratives, individual quotes l Personal voice, litery style

23. IDEAL QUANTITATIVEQUALITATIVE Research process is deductive. Research process is inductive. Measure objective facts.Document social reality, meaning is constructed. Focus on variables.Focus on in-depth meaning. Firewall between research process and researchers’ values. Values are present & explicit (empathy). Cross-contextual.Contextual dependence. Many cases.Few cases.

24. Statistical analysisThematic analysis Highly structured research process. Loosely structured research process. Particularistic, specific Holistic perspective Separation from dataIntimacy with data Generalize to population Generalization to properties and contexts IDEAL QUANTITATIVEQUALITATIVE

25. 25 When should I use qualitative methods? When variables cannot be quantified When variables are best understood in their natural settings When variables are studied over real time When studying intimate details of roles, processes, and groups When the paramount objective is “ understanding ” Qualitative Methods

26. 26 Qualitative Methods What skills do I need? Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue. Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values. Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listening Must be open to embracing multiple realities. Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.

27. 27 Qualitative Methods Before collecting data, you have to determine what you want to accomplish. Tight versus Loose Design Ask yourself: – How much time do I have? – What resources are available? – What is the purpose of the study? – In what am I really interested? More structure can prevent waste – If we already know about the context, it would be wasteful to go exploring – If you have targeted topic, you can reduce data at the collection stage and cut down on analysis time – Loose produces more data, more “surprise discoveries” can be made Design

28. 28 Qualitative Methods Choose your unit of analysis. Individuals – Certain experiences – Experiences in particular settings – Identities such as student with disabilities, ex-con Groups – Demographic groups – Intervention groups – Types of people such as ball players, secretaries – Those in one setting versus another – Organizations Design

29. 29 Quantitative Methods Secondary sources Primary sources Observation Interview Questionnaire Measurement and Scaling Difference between concept and variable Concepts, indicator and variable Levels of measurement scales Ordinal Nominal Interval Ration Types of scale Numerical Semantic differential Likert Goodness of measurement instrument Validity Reliability Sensitivity

30. 30 Quantitative Methods Quantity is the unit of analysis – Amounts – Frequencies – Degrees – Values – Intensity Uses statistics for greater precision and objectivity Based on the deductive model

31. 31 Model for Conceptualizing Quantitative Research Overall purpose or objective Research literature Research questions and hypotheses Selecting appropriate methods Validity and reliability of the data

32. 32 Creating the Foundation for Quantitative Research Concept – Abstract thinking to distinguish it from other elements Construct – Theoretical definition of a concept; must be observable or measurable; linked to other concepts Variable – Presented in research questions and hypotheses Operationalization – Specifically how the variable is observed or measured

33. 33 Research Hypotheses for Quantitative Research Educated guess or presumption based on literature States the nature of the relationship between two or more variables Predicts the research outcome Research study designed to test the relationship described in the hypothesis

34. COMBINED QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS

35. 35  The idea of combining qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study owes much to past discussion about mixing methods, linking paradigms to methods, and combining research design in all phases of a study.  By 1978 Denzin used the term triangulation, a term borrowed from navigation and military strategy, to argue for the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.  The concept of triangulation was based on the assumption that any bias inherent in particular data sources, investigator, and method would be neutralized when used in conjunction with other data sources, investigators, and methods.

36. 36 These methods might be drawn from “within methods” approaches, such as different types of quantitative data collection strategies (e.g., a survey and an experiment). Alternatively it might involve “between methods,” drawing on qualitative and quantitative data collection procedures (e.g., a survey and in depth interviews)

37. 37 Models of combined designs It is advantageous to a researcher to combine methods to better understand a concept being tested or explored Consider integrating the paradigms at several phases of the research process Use the two phases design, the dominant less dominant design, or the mixed methodology design to combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study

38. 38 The first model -the two phase design approach, in which the researcher proposes to conduct a qualitative phase of the study and a separate quantitative phase of the study. The advantage of this approach is that the two paradigms are clearly separate; it also enables a researcher to present thoroughly the paradigm assumptions behind each phase. The second model - the dominant less dominant design. In this design the researcher presents the study within a single, dominant paradigm with one small component of the overall study drawn from the alternative paradigm.

39. 39 The third model is the mixed methodology design. This design represents the highest degree of mixing paradigms of the three design. The researcher would mix aspects of the qualitative and quantitative paradigm at all or many methodological steps in the design. The paradigms might be mixed in the introduction, in the literature review and theory use, and in the purpose statement and the research questions. This approach adds complexity to a design and uses the advantages of both the qualitative and the quantitative paradigms.

40. 40 The models and design phases  The introduction In the two phase design the researcher would introduce a qualitative phase of the study. Typically this presentation might take the form of introducing a two phase project. An alternative design is to present two introductions, spaced apart in the presentation, with each introducing a separate phase of the study.

41. 41 In the dominant less dominant design the researcher would present the introduction from the framework of the dominant paradigm in the study. For instance, in a quantitative-dominant study the writer might advance an a priori theory to be tested and use the impersonal voice. In a mixed methodological design the introduction might be presented in the approach consistent with either paradigm, but the author would suggest explicitly that the study will be based on both paradigms.

42. 42 The literature and theory In a two phase design the literature and theory would be used inductively in a qualitative phase of the study and deductively in the quantitative phase. An exception, of course, is the qualitative designs with a strong theory-orientation, such as critical ethnography. In the dominant less dominant design the literature and theory would be used in an approach consistent with the dominant paradigm.

43. 43 In a mixed methodology design it is difficult, if not impossible, to mix the two paradigms in the use of theory and the literature. Despite the apparent incompatibility of an inductive versus deductive approach to research, one finds in practice theory and literature used without a strict interpretation of the inductive and deductive associations with the paradigms.

44. 44 Purpose Statement and Research Questions/Hypotheses In the two phase design model two sets of purpose statements and research questions are presented, each in the phase to which they apply. Their form represents the characteristics of the paradigm used in the phase. The dominant less dominant design would use a purpose statement and questions/hypotheses posed in the language of the dominant design.

45. 45 In the mixed methodology design the researcher could present two purposes for the study – one qualitative and one quantitative – and present them in the language characteristic of both paradigms.

46. 46 The methods In the two phase design the methods and the result of the qualitative phase of the study are reported separately from the methods and results of the qualitative phase. In a dominant-less dominant design the methods and results relate to the dominant paradigm in use, with a small segment for methods and results for the less-dominant paradigm. In a mixed – methodological design study, one finds “mixed methods” presented where the author collects both qualitative and quantitative data.

47. 47 How to Choose a Research Design Does it adequately test the hypothesis? Does it identify & control extraneous factors? Are results generalizable? Can the hypothesis be rejected or retained via statistical means? Is the design efficient in using available resources?

48. 48 Which method to choose? What design you choose depends on different factors. What information do you want? The aims of the study. The nature of the phenomenon - Is it feasible to collect the data, and if so, would it be valid/reliable? How reliable should the information be? Is it ethical to conduct the study? The cost of the design Is there little or much current scientific theory and literature on the topic?

49. 49 Which method to choose? Issues of ontology-the nature of reality Issues of epistemology- the nature of knowledge Issues of axiology- the role of values

50. 50 All the best and Good Luck