1. Realism and Idealism Direct/naive realism @ from perceptual variation @ from illusion @ from hallucination & dreaming @ from time lag Veridical perception Indirect realism Sense data (and their qualities) Physical objects (and their qualities) Solipsism Primary qualities Secondary qualities Idealism Berkeley Master argument Realism and Idealism Direct/naive realism @ from perceptual variation @ from illusion @ from hallucination & dreaming @ from time lag Veridical perception Indirect realism Sense data (and their qualities) Physical objects (and their qualities) Solipsism Primary qualities Secondary qualities Idealism Berkeley Master argument Justified True Belief Propositional knowledge Procedural knowledge Justification Infinite regress Truth Paradigms Belief Incompatibilism Necessity Sufficiency Gettier examples No false lemmas Infallibilism Reliabilism Tracking the truth Justified True Belief Propositional knowledge Procedural knowledge Justification Infinite regress Truth Paradigms Belief Incompatibilism Necessity Sufficiency Gettier examples No false lemmas Infallibilism Reliabilism Tracking the truth Miscellaneous IncorrigiblePremise & ConclusionSyllogismSpecious argumentvalidity & soundness Indefeasibledeductioninductioncounterfactualsindexical statements Infalliblesubjectively indistinguishabledogmaticpragmaticunassailable Sentient beingscognizant beingsscepticalnaturalistic fallacyepistemology Appearance & realityBertrand RussellJohn Locke Miscellaneous IncorrigiblePremise & ConclusionSyllogismSpecious argumentvalidity & soundness Indefeasibledeductioninductioncounterfactualsindexical statements Infalliblesubjectively indistinguishabledogmaticpragmaticunassailable Sentient beingscognizant beingsscepticalnaturalistic fallacyepistemology Appearance & realityBertrand RussellJohn Locke Empiricism & Rationalism Empiricism Innate knowledge Simple & Complex ideas Hume’s Fork The problem of induction Analytic v synthetic statements a priori v a posteriori knowledge Rationalism Mathematical synthetic a priori Descartes’ radical doubt Ontological arguments Universal causation Philosophical statements Universals v particulars Moral relativism v objectivism Empiricism & Rationalism Empiricism Innate knowledge Simple & Complex ideas Hume’s Fork The problem of induction Analytic v synthetic statements a priori v a posteriori knowledge Rationalism Mathematical synthetic a priori Descartes’ radical doubt Ontological arguments Universal causation Philosophical statements Universals v particulars Moral relativism v objectivism

2. Definition Reality is as it appears Definition Reality is as it appears Illustration Take a photo of the world – and that is ‘objectively’ how it is, even without someone viewing it. Illustration Take a photo of the world – and that is ‘objectively’ how it is, even without someone viewing it. Contrasts/alternatives Indirect realism & idealism Contrasts/alternatives Indirect realism & idealism Subdivisions/special cases A common sense or prephilosophical viewpoint Subdivisions/special cases A common sense or prephilosophical viewpoint

3. Premise People perceive the same scene differently Premise People perceive the same scene differently Premise One person will often see the same scene differently over time Premise One person will often see the same scene differently over time Conclusion The objective world cannot be identical to what is perceived. Conclusion The objective world cannot be identical to what is perceived. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries A corollary (ie additional conclusion/result) is we perceive something other than Reality – and that this is sense-data. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries A corollary (ie additional conclusion/result) is we perceive something other than Reality – and that this is sense-data.

4. Premise Conclusion Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries.

5. Premise Conclusion Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries.

6. Premise Conclusion Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries.

7. Definition Perception under normal circumstances – unmediated by distorting influences (such as drugs, strange atmospheric phenomena, sleep) Definition Perception under normal circumstances – unmediated by distorting influences (such as drugs, strange atmospheric phenomena, sleep) Illustration Perceiving a teapot under normal lighting conditions, when awake, and of sound mind Illustration Perceiving a teapot under normal lighting conditions, when awake, and of sound mind Contrasts/alternatives Dreaming Contrasts/alternatives Dreaming Subdivisions/special cases

8. Definition What we perceive is caused by and represents physical reality Definition What we perceive is caused by and represents physical reality Illustration When we see a dog on a chair, there are things objectively causing those two perceptions, which is related in a similar way to how they appear. Illustration When we see a dog on a chair, there are things objectively causing those two perceptions, which is related in a similar way to how they appear. Contrasts/alternatives (direct realism) Idealism Contrasts/alternatives (direct realism) Idealism Subdivisions/special cases Sense-data are the medium through which we perceive the world. John Locke is the most famous advocate of this position Subdivisions/special cases Sense-data are the medium through which we perceive the world. John Locke is the most famous advocate of this position

9. Definition Information reaching our minds via out 5 senses. Infallible, transitory (or fleeting) and essentially private. Definition Information reaching our minds via out 5 senses. Infallible, transitory (or fleeting) and essentially private. Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases Visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory Subdivisions/special cases Visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory

10. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

11. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

12. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

13. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

14. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

15. Premise Conclusion Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries. Any weaknesses/limitations/corollaries.

16. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Procedural knowledge – knowledge how to do something. Such as ‘knowing how to ride a bicycle’. Contrasts/alternatives Procedural knowledge – knowledge how to do something. Such as ‘knowing how to ride a bicycle’. Subdivisions/special cases

17. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Justification requires being able to explain our beliefs with adequate reasons. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Justification requires being able to explain our beliefs with adequate reasons. Illustration The racist juror example - …. Illustration The racist juror example - …. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without justification. Problems of infinite regress – how do we achieve full justification if each reason requires further justification. To prevent infinite regress, some reasons must be axiomatic. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without justification. Problems of infinite regress – how do we achieve full justification if each reason requires further justification. To prevent infinite regress, some reasons must be axiomatic. Subdivisions/special cases

18. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Truth requires that the proposition in question be verified – ie checked that it is true. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Truth requires that the proposition in question be verified – ie checked that it is true. Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without truth. Kuhn claims that scientific cannot be objectively classified as true/false, since it continually works within a paradigm – which decides which questions it will deem worth answering. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without truth. Kuhn claims that scientific cannot be objectively classified as true/false, since it continually works within a paradigm – which decides which questions it will deem worth answering. Subdivisions/special cases

19. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Belief requires that the proposition be held to be true, in someone’s mind. Definition Plato claims that justified true belief was both necessary and sufficient for knowledge. Belief requires that the proposition be held to be true, in someone’s mind. Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without belief. Incompatibilism claims that propositions are either known or believed. This depends on a special connotation of ‘belief’ which implies that they must be open to doubt. Contrasts/alternatives Knowledge without belief. Incompatibilism claims that propositions are either known or believed. This depends on a special connotation of ‘belief’ which implies that they must be open to doubt. Subdivisions/special cases

20. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

21. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

22. Definition Gettier claims that a belief being justified and true is not always sufficient to constitute knowledge. His examples depend upon the fact that some beliefs can be reasonable, but actually true by accident. Definition Gettier claims that a belief being justified and true is not always sufficient to constitute knowledge. His examples depend upon the fact that some beliefs can be reasonable, but actually true by accident. Illustration. Illustration. Implications Illustration. Illustration.

23. Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if they are not based upon any false claims (lemmas) along the way. Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if they are not based upon any false claims (lemmas) along the way. Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

24. Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if… Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if… Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

25. Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if they track the truth. Definition This offers a supplement to Plato’s tripartite definition of knowledge which copes with Gettier examples. It claims that JTbeliefs are only knowledge if they track the truth. Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

26. Definition Illustration Hume was an empiricist. He believed that we could not have knowledge of what is morally right, what causes events to happen, who we are and the nature of God – because none of these are accessible through our senses. Illustration Hume was an empiricist. He believed that we could not have knowledge of what is morally right, what causes events to happen, who we are and the nature of God – because none of these are accessible through our senses. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

27. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Locke’s idea of a tabula rasa – in which he claims that our minds are a blank slate when we are born Contrasts/alternatives Locke’s idea of a tabula rasa – in which he claims that our minds are a blank slate when we are born Subdivisions/special cases

28. Definition These are the most basic parts of Hume’s explanation of empirical knowledge. They cannot be broken down. They are mostly gained by ostensive definition (pointing) Definition These are the most basic parts of Hume’s explanation of empirical knowledge. They cannot be broken down. They are mostly gained by ostensive definition (pointing) Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

29. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases A golden mountain – Hume was able to explain how we could use terms which no-one had ever experienced. Subdivisions/special cases A golden mountain – Hume was able to explain how we could use terms which no-one had ever experienced.

30. Definition Hume claimed that all knowledge was either ‘matters of fact’ or ‘relations of ideas’ Definition Hume claimed that all knowledge was either ‘matters of fact’ or ‘relations of ideas’ Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

31. Definition Illustration We never see one event being necessarily caused by another. We just see the spatial contiguity, temporal succession and repetition.. Illustration We never see one event being necessarily caused by another. We just see the spatial contiguity, temporal succession and repetition.. Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

32. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Synthetic propositions Contrasts/alternatives Synthetic propositions Subdivisions/special cases

33. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives ‘a posteriori’ knowledge Contrasts/alternatives ‘a posteriori’ knowledge Subdivisions/special cases Rationalists believe that some a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions. Subdivisions/special cases Rationalists believe that some a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions.

34. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives ‘a priori’ knowledge Contrasts/alternatives ‘a priori’ knowledge Subdivisions/special cases ‘A posteriori’ knowledge is contingent (rather than necessary) because it is not true in all possible worlds. Subdivisions/special cases ‘A posteriori’ knowledge is contingent (rather than necessary) because it is not true in all possible worlds.

35. Definition Illustration. Illustration. Contrasts/alternatives Empricism Gnosticism Contrasts/alternatives Empricism Gnosticism Subdivisions/special cases

36. Definition Some mathematical statements appear to be synthetic, and yet must be known a priori since they are necessarily true Definition Some mathematical statements appear to be synthetic, and yet must be known a priori since they are necessarily true Illustration ‘The angles in a triangle add up to 180°’. Not true by definition of ‘triangle’. But not in need of a posteriori verification – since it can be demonstrated with a logical proof °° Illustration ‘The angles in a triangle add up to 180°’. Not true by definition of ‘triangle’. But not in need of a posteriori verification – since it can be demonstrated with a logical proof °° Contrasts/alternatives It is claimed that mathematical truths like this are actually based upon Euclid’s axioms, which must be checked a posteriori like all other empirical knowledge. Eg triangles on a sphere (non-Euclidean geometry) Contrasts/alternatives It is claimed that mathematical truths like this are actually based upon Euclid’s axioms, which must be checked a posteriori like all other empirical knowledge. Eg triangles on a sphere (non-Euclidean geometry) Subdivisions/special cases

37. Definition Illustration °° Illustration °° Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

38. Definition Illustration °° Illustration °° Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

39. Definition Illustration °° Illustration °° Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

40. Definition Statements about how knowledge relates to reality, or about where knowledge comes from, appear to be not capable of a posteriori verification, and yet are not true by definition Definition Statements about how knowledge relates to reality, or about where knowledge comes from, appear to be not capable of a posteriori verification, and yet are not true by definition Illustration ‘Esse es percipi’ ‘All synthetic propositions are known a posteriori’ Illustration ‘Esse es percipi’ ‘All synthetic propositions are known a posteriori’ Contrasts/alternatives Wittgenstein –a logical positivist – claimed that such philosophical claims are not knowledge. “That of which we cannot speak, we must stay silent” Contrasts/alternatives Wittgenstein –a logical positivist – claimed that such philosophical claims are not knowledge. “That of which we cannot speak, we must stay silent” Subdivisions/special cases

41. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases

42. Definition Illustration Contrasts/alternatives Subdivisions/special cases