1. Functions

2. Introduction A sequence of statements that perform some related and useful processing. Functions have 3 components :- ( ) Note :- Declaration does not allocate any space to the argument list and thus, the argument names are ignored. Example) char* strcpy(char* to,char* from)

3. Function Definition Actual body of code for the function. Names all or some of the function parameters. It is possible to have unnamed parameters for future use. Example) void Foo(int N,char C,float) { if(N>30 && N<100) N=N-30; if(C>='a' && C<='z') C=C-30; }

4. Argument Passing A store is set aside for the formal arguments and each formal argument’s memory location is initialized by the actual argument value. Type-Checking is performed and all promotions,standard conversions and user- defined type-conversions are performed. Local copy vs. original copy.

5. example void f(int val,int& ref) { val++; ref++; } void g() { int i=1; int j=1; f(i,j); }

6. const and non-const arguments const arguments :- Safeguards programs from modifying original parameter incase of pass-by- reference. Example) ex.1) int strcmp(const char*,const char*); //compares 2 strings.Care is taken to safeguard from accidental change to the original strings ex.2) float fsqrt(const float& rr); void g(double d) { float r=fsqrt(2.0f); //pass by ref to temp holding 2.0f r=fsqrt(r); //pass reference to r r=fsqrt(d); //pass reference to temp holding float(d) }

7. Array Arguments Argument of array type (i.e. T[]) is intrinsically converted to T* before passing to a function. Thus, an array CANNOT be passed by value. Use const modifier is necessary. Example) void Foo1(int* A); void Foo2(int[] A); void g() { int A[]={2,3,4,5}; Foo1(A); Foo2(A); }

8. Return Value Return type must be specified, if none then specify as void. Recursion. A return statement is considered to initialize an unnamed, temporary variable of the return type. Type checking for return values is done. Do not attempt to return references to local function variables.

9. example ex.1) int fac(int n) { if(n>1) return n * fac(n-1); return 1; } ex.2) double f(){....; return 1;} //1 is implicitly converted to double(1)

10. Function Overloading Functions that have same “Function Name” but different argument-lists. Basic intention is to allow functions to perform semantically similar actions n different contexts. Return types are not taken into account. Functions in different scopes do not overload.

11. example void print (int); //print an int void print(const char*); //print a string float sqrt(float); double sqrt(double); void f() { float a=9.3f; double b=34.55; a=sqrt(a); //calls sqrt(float) b=sqrt(b); //calls sqrt(double) }

12. example (cont.) void f(int); void g() { void f(double); f(1); //calls f(double), no ambiguity }

13. Overloaded Function Resolution Rules to find the best-match between the type of passed argument and type of formal argument. Rules :- –Exact Match; trivial or no conversions (array name to pointer, function name to pointer and T to const T) –Match using promotions; integral promotions, float to double, double to long double. –Match using standard conversion; (int to double, double to int) –Match using user-defined conversions. –Match using ellipses.

14. example void print(int); void print(const char*); void print(double); void print(char); void h(char c,int i,short s,float f) { print(c); //exact match: invoke print(char) print(i); //exact match: invoke print(int) print(c); //integral promotion match: invoke print(int) print('a'); //exact match: invoke print(char) print(49); //exact match: invoke print(int) print(0); //exact match: invoke print(int) print("a"); //exact match: invoke print(const char*) }

15. Manual Ambiguity Resolution Too few or too many overloaded functions Try to analyze and resolve ambiguities manually. Try to use non-overloaded functions. void f1(char); void f1(long); void f2(char*); void f2(int*); void k(int i) { f1(i); //ambiguos : f1(char) or f1(long) f2(0); //ambiguos : f2(char*) or f2(int*) }

16. Resolution of Multiple Arguments A function that is the best match for one argument and a better than or equal match for all other arguments is called. int pow(int,int); int pow(double,double); void Foo(double,float); void Foo(int,int); void k() { int r=pow(2,2); int r=pow(2.0,2.0); int r=pow(2.0,2); //error Foo(2.0,2); //Foo(double,float is called }

17. Default Argument Allows certain formal arguments to be initialized with some default value incase the call does not explicitly pass values for every argument. Aimed at having functions that have a short and simple form without overloading. Default arguments are type-checked at the time of function declaration and evaluated at the time of function call. Only trailing arguments can be made default.

18. example void print(int value,int base=10); void f() { print(31); print(31,10); print(31,16); print(31,2); } Output :: 31 31 1f 11111 int f(int,int=0;char* =0); //ok.note the space between * and = int f(int=0,int=0;char*); //error int f(int=0,int;char* =0); //error

19. Unspecified Arguments For those functions for which all argument type may not be specified. The compiler has no information to process the unknown portion of the argument list. Completely programmer dependent. library is used.

20. void error(int severity...) //"severity followed by zero- terminated list of char*'s { va_list ap; //container for the argument list va_start(ap,severity); //load the argument list for(;;) { char* p=va_arg(ap,char*); if(p==0) break; cerr<<p<<' '; } va_end(ap); //cleanup }

21. Macros #define preprocessor directive to produce text replacement. Processed by the preprocessor and no participation from the compiler. No C++ type check or scope rules. Overloading and recursion are not allowed. Use inline functions instead.

22. example #define MAC(x,y) x+y #define SQUARE(a) a*a int m=10; int l = SQUARE(m+2);

23. Inline Functions The “inline” keyword is a hint to the compiler that it should replace the function call by function code. No guarantee that inline behavior will be followed. inline functions behave like normal functions other than their call. inline int Foo(int N) { return (N*N)/(N-1); }