1. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Professor Veronica Emiia Nuzzolo CHAPTER 5 LEARNING Introductory Psychology Concepts

2. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-2 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Learning: A Relatively Permanent Change In Behavior Caused By Experience Or Practice. A man who carries a cat by the tail learns something that he can learn in no other way. —Mark Twain

3. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-3 Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s make you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning: The Association Of Two Stimuli In The Environment.

4. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-4 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Ivan Pavlov + Russian physiologist, never intended to do psychological research. + Won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion (1904). + Remembered for his experiments on basic learning process, not for his experiments on physiology. Ivan Pavlov (center) developed the principles of classical conditioning.

5. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-5 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Before conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation— making the bell a neutral stimulus.

6. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-6 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response.

7. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-7 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat.

8. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-8 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation.

9. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-9 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

10. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-10 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

11. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-11 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

12. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-12 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

13. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-13 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Operant Conditioning: Behavior Followed By A Consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive “rewards”.

14. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-14 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Reinforcement Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

15. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-15 Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Punishment Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing. Intended Results Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

16. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-16 Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Reinforcement Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment Intended Results Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

17. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-17 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Punishment Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew. Intended Results Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

18. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-18 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:  Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Prior experience has taught us that a candy machine delivers reinforcement (candy) every time we put in the appropriate amount of money. If the candy machine were broken, it would not take very long before we stopped depositing coins.

19. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-19 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule:  Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time. Prior experience with a slot machine has taught us that after putting in our cash, most of the time we will not receive anything in return. At the same time, we know that we will occasionally win something. In comparison with the candy machine—If the slot machine were broken, we would drop in money for a considerably longer time, even though there would be no payoff.

20. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-20 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. There are short pauses after each response. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

21. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-21 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

22. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-22 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement for a response occurs only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

23. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-23 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Time Responding occurs at a steady rate. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

24. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-24 Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) TIME Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

25. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-25 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

26. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-26 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. AcquisitionExtinction Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning

27. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-27 Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur. Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; The ability to differentiate between stimuli. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Laws of Learning

28. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-28 Cognitive Learning Theory An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. Challenges the stimulus-response (S-R) model, Argues that in between stimulus and response there is the organism’s (O) view of the world (S-O-R). Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Cognitive Learning: Learning That Requires Cognition And Thought Processes

29. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-29 Tolman’s Demonstration + Rats were allowed to roam through a maze once a day for seventeen days. + One group was reinforced with food every time they reached the end of the maze + One group never received reinforcement. + The experimental group received food reinforcement on day 11. Feldman 208a Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful

30. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-30 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful Tolman’s Results + Unrewarded control group consistently made the most errors. + Rewarded control group made far fewer errors. + Experimental group showed immediate reduction in errors after they began receiving reward. This suggests that the experimental group had learned the maze prior to the introduction of reinforcement.

31. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-31 In the 1920’s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler exposed chimpanzees to novel learning tasks and concluded that they were able to learn by insight. Sultan the chimpanzee seems to study the hanging bananas that are out of reach. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving

32. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-32 After looking around, Sultan suddenly grabs some crates, and stacks them... Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving

33. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-33 Sultan obtains his tasty reward. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving

34. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-34 In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Observational Learning: learning through watching others

35. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-35 Classical Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment. Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s makes you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning.

36. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-36 Ivan Pavlov + Russian physiologist, never intended to do psychological research. + Won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion (1904). + Remembered for his experiments on basic learning process, not for his experiments on physiology. Ivan Pavlov (center) developed the principles of classical conditioning.

37. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-37 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Before conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation— making the bell a neutral stimulus.

38. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-38 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response.

39. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-39 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat.

40. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-40 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation.

41. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-41 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

42. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-42 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training.

43. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-43 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

44. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-44 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

45. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-45 Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) TIME

46. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-46 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

47. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-47 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. AcquisitionExtinction Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

48. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-48 Applied Classical Conditioning Watson and “Little Albert” (1920) John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner set out to obtain evidence that fear could be conditioned.

49. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-49 Applied Classical Conditioning Conditioned Taste Aversion + If every time you ate peanuts you had an upset stomach several hours later, you would eventually learn to avoid peanuts, despite the time-lapse between the stimulus of peanuts and response of getting ill. + In fact, you might develop a conditioned taste aversion, so that peanuts no longer even tasted good to you. + Taste aversion can also occur with a single incident—you get the flu after eating a burrito and so don’t want to eat them again.

50. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-50 Applied Classical Conditioning Biological Preparedness + Organisms that ingest unpalatable foods are likely to avoid similar foods in the future, making their survival more likely. (Steinmetz, Kim, & Thompson, 2003; Cox et al., 2004). Because of prior experience with meat that had been laced with mild poison, this coyote does not obey its natural instincts and ignores what would otherwise be a tasty meal.

51. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-51 Operant Conditioning: Behavior followed by a consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals.

52. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-52 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Reinforcement Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

53. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-53 Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Punishment Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing. Intended Results Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types

54. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-54 Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Reinforcement Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment Intended Results Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types

55. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-55 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Punishment Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew. Intended Results

56. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-56 Schedules of Reinforcement: Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time.

57. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-57 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. There are short pauses after each response.

58. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-58 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate.

59. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-59 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Interval Schedule: A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response.

60. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-60 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Time Responding occurs at a steady rate.

61. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-61 Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) TIME

62. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-62 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

63. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-63 Laws of Learning TIME TrainingCS alone PauseSpontaneous recovery Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. AcquisitionExtinction Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) STRONG WEAK Strength of Conditioned Response (CR)

64. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-64 Laws of Learning Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur.

65. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-65 Laws of Learning Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur. Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs when two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not The ability to differentiate between stimuli.

66. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-66 Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s make you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning. Classical Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories

67. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-67 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories

68. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-68 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories

69. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-69 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories

70. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-70 Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories

71. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-71 Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Operant Conditioning: Behavior Followed By A Consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive “rewards”.

72. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-72 Cognitive Learning Theory + An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. + Challenges the stimulus-response (S-R) model, arguing that in between stimulus and response there is the organism’s (O) view of the world (S-O-R). Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Cognitive Learning: Learning that requires cognition and thought processes

73. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-73 In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Observational Learning: Learning through watching others

74. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-74 Reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.  What makes something a reinforcer depends on individual preferences.  The only way to know if a stimulus is a reinforcer for a particular organism is to observe whether the frequency of a previously occurring behavior increases after the presentation of the stimulus.

75. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-75 Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus. The stimulus that follows and strengthens the response is called a positive reinforcer. A rat receives food pellets when it presses a lever and eventually begins to press the lever more often. Food pellets are a positive reinforcer because they increase the rat’s frequency of lever pressing.

76. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-76 Positive Reinforcement You turn in homework on time. Teacher praises your performance. You increasingly turn in homework on time. You wax your skis.The skis go faster. You wax your skis the next time you go skiing. You randomly press a button on the dashboard of a friend’s car. Great music begins to play. You deliberately press the button again the next time you get into the car. BehaviorFuture Behavior Rewarding Stimulus Provided

77. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-77 The term reward is often misused as a synonym for the term positive reinforcer. Behaviorists prefer positive reinforcer because it focuses on how consequences affect behavior. Intended Results: Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Reinforcement Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

78. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-78 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Psychologists distinguish between two broad types of positive reinforcers.  Primary reinforcers are stimuli, such as food and water, that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.  Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers are stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers.  Money is a conditioned reinforcer. Similarly, chimpanzees learn to value, work for, and even hoard tokens that they can place into a vending machine to obtain raisins.

79. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-79 Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something you do not like Negative Reinforcement in Everyday Life SituationBehavior Muscles ache Sunlight is uncomfortably bright You feel hungry, thirsty Neighbor’s music is too loud It starts to pour Alarm clock rings Parent nags child to clean room Take hot bath Put on sunglasses Eat, drink something Ask neighbor to lower music Open an umbrella Hit the off button Child cleans room Consequence Muscle ache decreases Discomfort is reduced Hunger, thirst decrease Music is less disruptive You stay dry Annoying ringing stops Nagging stops

80. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-80 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Reinforcement Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

81. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-81 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is added, the result is... Positive Punishment Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing. Intended Results

82. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-82 Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Reinforcement Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment Intended Results

83. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-83 Decrease in behavior (punishment) When stimulus is removed, the result is... Negative Punishment Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew. Intended Results Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types

84. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-84 Schedules of Reinforcement: Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time.

85. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-85 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. There are short pauses after each response.

86. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-86 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate.

87. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-87 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Time Fixed-Interval Schedule: A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response.

88. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-88 Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Time Responding occurs at a steady rate.

89. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-89 Negative Reinforcement: Termination of a stimulus which increases the probability of a response. Negative Reinforcement Response Occurs An aversive stimulus is removed Response increases Process BehaviorConsequenceResult (Person takes aspirin) (Headache pain goes away) (Increased tendency to take aspirin for headache relief)

90. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-90 Punishment: A stimulus following a response that makes a second response less likely. Response Occurs An aversive stimulus is presented Response decreases Aversive punishment (positive punishment) (Two siblings fight over a toy) (Parents scold or spank them) (Fighting decreases) Punishment by Application: Response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. ProcessBehaviorConsequenceResult

91. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-91 Punishment: A stimulus following a response that makes a second response less likely. Response Occurs Response decreases ProcessBehaviorConsequenceResult A stimulus is removed Response cost (negative punishment) (Two siblings fight over a toy) (No TV for 1 week) (Fighting decreases) Punishment by Removal: Response is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus.

92. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-92 Aggressive Punishment: Can act as a model for aggressive behavior Laboratory experiments indicate that children learn aggressive behaviors by watching aggressive adult models (Bandura, 1965).

93. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5-93 Punishment: Only temporarily changes behavior. Punishment is frequently ineffective when  it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior  the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. Punishment can reduce the self-esteem of recipients unless they can understand the reasons for it. Punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be.