1. Chapter 56 Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overview: Striking Gold 1.8 million species have been named and described. Biologists estimate 10–200 million species exist on Earth. Tropical forests contain some of the greatest concentrations of species and are being destroyed at an alarming rate. Humans are rapidly pushing many species toward extinction.

3. Fig. 56-1 Figure 56.1 What will be the fate of this newly described bird species?

4. Fig. 56-2 Figure 56.2 Tropical deforestation in West Kalimantan, an Indonesian province

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation biology, which seeks to preserve life, integrates several fields: – Ecology – Physiology – Molecular biology – Genetics – Evolutionary biology

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Restoration ecology applies ecological principles to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural state.

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 56.1: Human activities threaten Earth’s biodiversity Rates of species extinction are difficult to determine under natural conditions. The high rate of species extinction is largely a result of ecosystem degradation by humans. Humans are threatening Earth’s biodiversity.

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Three Levels of Biodiversity Biodiversity has three main components: – Genetic diversity – Species diversity – Ecosystem diversity

9. Fig. 56-3 Genetic diversity in a vole population Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem Community and ecosystem diversity across the landscape of an entire region Figure 56.3 Three levels of biodiversity

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity comprises genetic variation within a population and between populations.

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Species Diversity Species diversity is the variety of species in an ecosystem or throughout the biosphere. According to the U.S. Endangered Species Act: – An endangered species is “in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” – A threatened species is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future.

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation biologists are concerned about species loss because of alarming statistics regarding extinction and biodiversity. Globally, 12% of birds, 20% of mammals, and 32% of amphibians are threatened with extinction.

13. Fig. 56-4 (a) Philippine eagle Yangtze River dolphin (b) Javan rhinoceros (c) Figure 56.4 A hundred heartbeats from extinction

14. Fig. 56-4a (a) Philippine eagle Figure 56.4 A hundred heartbeats from extinction

15. Fig. 56-4b (b) Yangtze River dolphin Figure 56.4 A hundred heartbeats from extinction

16. Fig. 56-4c (c) Javan rhinoceros Figure 56.4 A hundred heartbeats from extinction

17. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Ecosystem Diversity Human activity is reducing ecosystem diversity, the variety of ecosystems in the biosphere. More than 50% of wetlands in the contiguous United States have been drained and converted to other ecosystems.

18. Fig. 56-5 Figure 56.5 The endangered Marianas “flying fox” bat (Pteropus mariannus), an important pollinator

19. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity and Human Welfare Human biophilia allows us to recognize the value of biodiversity for its own sake. Species diversity brings humans practical benefits.

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Benefits of Species and Genetic Diversity In the United States, 25% of prescriptions contain substances originally derived from plants. For example, the rosy periwinkle contains alkaloids that inhibit cancer growth.

21. Fig. 56-6 Figure 56.6 The rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), a plant that saves lives

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The loss of species also means loss of genes and genetic diversity. The enormous genetic diversity of organisms has potential for great human benefit.

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Ecosystem Services Ecosystem services encompass all the processes through which natural ecosystems and their species help sustain human life. Some examples of ecosystem services: – Purification of air and water – Detoxification and decomposition of wastes – Cycling of nutrients – Moderation of weather extremes

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Three Threats to Biodiversity. Most species loss can be traced to three major threats: – Habitat destruction – Introduced species – Overexploitation

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Habitat Loss Human alteration of habitat is the greatest threat to biodiversity throughout the biosphere. In almost all cases, habitat fragmentation and destruction lead to loss of biodiversity. For example: – In Wisconsin, prairie occupies <0.1% of its original area – About 93% of coral reefs have been damaged by human activities

26. Fig. 56-7

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Introduced Species Introduced species are those that humans move from native locations to new geographic regions. Without their native predators, parasites, and pathogens, introduced species may spread rapidly. Introduced species that gain a foothold in a new habitat usually disrupt their adopted community.

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Sometimes humans introduce species by accident, as in case of the brown tree snake arriving in Guam as a cargo ship “stowaway.”

29. Fig. 56-8 (a) Brown tree snake(b) Kudzu Figure 56.8 Two introduced species

30. Fig. 56-8a (a) Brown tree snake Figure 56.8 Two introduced species

31. Fig. 56-8b (b) Kudzu Figure 56.8 Two introduced species

32. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Humans have deliberately introduced some species with good intentions but disastrous effects. An example is the introduction of kudzu in the southern United States.

33. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overexploitation Overexploitation is human harvesting of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations of those species to rebound. Overexploitation by the fishing industry has greatly reduced populations of some game fish, such as bluefin tuna.

34. Fig. 56-9 Figure 56.9 Overexploitation

35. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings DNA analysis can help conservation biologists to identify the source of illegally obtained animal products.

36. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 56.2: Population conservation focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat Biologists focusing on conservation at the population and species levels follow two main approaches: – The small-population approach – The declining-population approach

37. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Small-Population Approach The small-population approach studies processes that can make small populations become extinct.

38. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Extinction Vortex A small population is prone to positive- feedback loops that draw it down an extinction vortex. The key factor driving the extinction vortex is loss of the genetic variation necessary to enable evolutionary responses to environmental change.

39. Fig. 56-10 Inbreeding Small population Genetic drift Lower reproduction Higher mortality Smaller population Reduction in individual fitness and population adaptability Loss of genetic variability Figure 56.10 Processes culminating in an extinction vortex

40. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Case Study: The Greater Prairie Chicken and the Extinction Vortex Populations of the greater prairie chicken were fragmented by agriculture and later found to exhibit decreased fertility. To test the extinction vortex hypothesis, scientists imported genetic variation by transplanting birds from larger populations. The declining population rebounded, confirming that low genetic variation had been causing an extinction vortex.

41. Fig. 56-11 Translocation Year (a) Population dynamics Number of male birds 200 150 100 50 0 19701975198519901995 100 Eggs hatched (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Years (b) Hatching rate 1970–’74’75–’79’80–’84’85–’89’90’93–’97 1980 RESULTS Figure 56.11 What caused the drastic decline of the Illinois greater prairie chicken population?

42. Fig. 56-11a Translocation Year (a) Population dynamics Number of male birds 200 150 100 50 0 197019751985 1990 1995 1980 RESULTS Figure 56.11 What caused the drastic decline of the Illinois greater prairie chicken population?

43. Fig. 56-11b 100 Eggs hatched (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Years (b) Hatching rate 1970–’74 ’75–’79’80–’84’85–’89 ’90 ’93–’97 RESULTS Figure 56.11 What caused the drastic decline of the Illinois greater prairie chicken population?

44. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Minimum Viable Population Size Minimum viable population (MVP) is the minimum population size at which a species can survive. The MVP depends on factors that affect a population’s chances for survival over a particular time.

45. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Effective Population Size A meaningful estimate of MVP requires determining the effective population size, which is based on the population’s breeding potential.

46. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Effective population size N e is estimated by: – where N f and N m are the number of females and the number of males, respectively, that breed successfully. 4NfNm4NfNm N f + N m N e =

47. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Case Study: Analysis of Grizzly Bear Populations One of the first population viability analyses was conducted as part of a long-term study of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park. This grizzly population is about 400, but the N e is about 100. The Yellowstone grizzly population has low genetic variability compared with other grizzly populations.

48. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Introducing individuals from other populations would increase the numbers and genetic variation.

49. Fig. 56-12 Figure 56.12 Long-term monitoring of a grizzly bear population

50. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Declining-Population Approach The declining-population approach: – Focuses on threatened and endangered populations that show a downward trend, regardless of population size. – Emphasizes the environmental factors that caused a population to decline.

51. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Steps for Analysis and Intervention The declining-population approach involves several steps: – Confirm that the population is in decline. – Study the species’ natural history. – Develop hypotheses for all possible causes of decline. – Test the hypotheses in order of likeliness. – Apply the results of the diagnosis to manage for recovery.

52. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Case Study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Red-cockaded woodpeckers require living trees in mature pine forests. They have a complex social structure where one breeding pair has up to four “helper” individuals. This species had been forced into decline by habitat destruction.

53. Fig. 56-13 (a) Forests with low undergrowth(b) Forests with high, dense undergrowth Red-cockaded woodpecker Figure 56.13 Habitat requirements of the red-cockaded woodpecker

54. Fig. 56-13a (a) Forests with low undergrowth Figure 56.13 Habitat requirements of the red-cockaded woodpecker

55. Fig. 56-13b (b) Forests with high, dense undergrowth Figure 56.13 Habitat requirements of the red-cockaded woodpecker

56. Fig. 56-13c Red-cockaded woodpecker

57. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings In a study where breeding cavities were constructed, new breeding groups formed only in these sites. Based on this experiment, a combination of habitat maintenance and excavation of breeding cavities enabled this endangered species to rebound.

58. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Weighing Conflicting Demands Conserving species often requires resolving conflicts between habitat needs of endangered species and human demands. For example, in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, habitat preservation for many species is at odds with timber and mining industries. Managing habitat for one species might have positive or negative effects on other species.

59. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 56.3: Landscape and regional conservation aim to sustain entire biotas Conservation biology has attempted to sustain the biodiversity of entire communities, ecosystems, and landscapes. Ecosystem management is part of landscape ecology, which seeks to make biodiversity conservation part of land-use planning.

60. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Landscape Structure and Biodiversity The structure of a landscape can strongly influence biodiversity.

61. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fragmentation and Edges The boundaries, or edges, between ecosystems are defining features of landscapes. Some species take advantage of edge communities to access resources from both adjacent areas.

62. Fig. 56-14 (a) Natural edges (b) Edges created by human activity Figure 56.14 Edges between ecosystems

63. Fig. 56-14a (a) Natural edges Figure 56.14 Edges between ecosystems

64. Fig. 56-14b (b) Edges created by human activity Figure 56.14 Edges between ecosystems

65. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project in the Amazon examines the effects of fragmentation on biodiversity. Landscapes dominated by fragmented habitats support fewer species due to a loss of species adapted to habitat interiors.

66. Fig. 56-15 Figure 56.15 Amazon rain forest fragments created as part of the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project

67. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Corridors That Connect Habitat Fragments A movement corridor is a narrow strip of quality habitat connecting otherwise isolated patches. Movement corridors promote dispersal and help sustain populations. In areas of heavy human use, artificial corridors are sometimes constructed.

68. Fig. 56-16 Figure 56.16 An artificial corridor

69. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Establishing Protected Areas Conservation biologists apply understanding of ecological dynamics in establishing protected areas to slow the loss of biodiversity. Much of their focus has been on hot spots of biological diversity.

70. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Finding Biodiversity Hot Spots A biodiversity hot spot is a relatively small area with a great concentration of endemic species and many endangered and threatened species. Biodiversity hot spots are good choices for nature reserves, but identifying them is not always easy. Video: Coral Reef Video: Coral Reef

71. Fig. 56-17 Equator Terrestrial biodiversity hot spots Marine biodiversity hot spots Figure 56.17 Earth’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity hot spots

72. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Philosophy of Nature Reserves Nature reserves are biodiversity islands in a sea of habitat degraded by human activity. Nature reserves must consider disturbances as a functional component of all ecosystems.

73. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings An important question is whether to create fewer large reserves or more numerous small reserves. One argument for extensive reserves is that large, far-ranging animals with low-density populations require extensive habitats. Smaller reserves may be more realistic, and may slow the spread of disease throughout a population.

74. Fig. 56-18 Kilometers 050100 MONTANA IDAHO MONTANA WYOMING Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone R. Shoshone R. Grand Teton National Park Snake R. IDAHO WYOMING Biotic boundary for short-term survival; MVP is 50 individuals. Biotic boundary for long-term survival; MVP is 500 individuals. Figure 56.18 Biotic boundaries for grizzly bears in Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks

75. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Zoned Reserves The zoned reserve model recognizes that conservation often involves working in landscapes that are largely human dominated. A zoned reserve includes relatively undisturbed areas and the modified areas that surround them and that serve as buffer zones. Zoned reserves are often established as “conservation areas.” Costa Rica has become a world leader in establishing zoned reserves.

76. Fig. 56-19 Nicaragua Costa Rica CARIBBEAN SEA PACIFIC OCEAN Panama National park land Buffer zone (a) Zoned reserves in Costa Rica (b) Schoolchildren in one of Costa Rica’s reserves Figure 56.19 Zoned reserves in Costa Rica

77. Fig. 56-19a Nicaragua Costa Rica CARIBBEAN SEA PACIFIC OCEAN Panama National park land Buffer zone (a) Zoned reserves in Costa Rica Figure 56.19 Zoned reserves in Costa Rica

78. Fig. 56-19b (b) Schoolchildren in one of Costa Rica’s reserves Figure 56.19 Zoned reserves in Costa Rica

79. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Some zoned reserves in the Fiji islands are closed to fishing, which actually improves fishing success in nearby areas. The United States has adopted a similar zoned reserve system with the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.

80. Fig. 56-20 FLORIDA GULF OF MEXICO 50 km Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Figure 56.20 A diver measuring coral in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

81. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 56.4: Restoration ecology attempts to restore degraded ecosystems to a more natural state Given enough time, biological communities can recover from many types of disturbances. Restoration ecology seeks to initiate or speed up the recovery of degraded ecosystems. A basic assumption of restoration ecology is that most environmental damage is reversible. Two key strategies are bioremediation and augmentation of ecosystem processes.

82. Fig. 56-21 (a) In 1991, before restoration(b) In 2000, near the completion of restoration Figure 56.21 A gravel and clay mine site in New Jersey before and after restoration

83. Fig. 56-21a (a) In 1991, before restoration Figure 56.21 A gravel and clay mine site in New Jersey before and after restoration

84. Fig. 56-21b (b) In 2000, near the completion of restoration Figure 56.21 A gravel and clay mine site in New Jersey before and after restoration

85. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Bioremediation Bioremediation is the use of living organisms to detoxify ecosystems. The organisms most often used are prokaryotes, fungi, or plants. These organisms can take up, and sometimes metabolize, toxic molecules.

86. Fig. 56-22 (a) Unlined pits filled with wastes containing uranium(b) Uranium in groundwater Days after adding ethanol Concentration of soluble uranium (µM) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 050100150200250300350400 Figure 56.22 Bioremediation of groundwater contaminated with uranium at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee

87. Fig. 56-22a (a) Unlined pits filled with wastes containing uranium

88. Fig. 56-22b (b) Uranium in groundwater Days after adding ethanol Concentration of soluble uranium (µM) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 50100 150200250300350 400 Figure 56.22 Bioremediation of groundwater contaminated with uranium at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee

89. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biological Augmentation Biological augmentation uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem. For example, nitrogen-fixing plants can increase the available nitrogen in soil.

90. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Exploring Restoration The newness and complexity of restoration ecology require that ecologists consider alternative solutions and adjust approaches based on experience.

91. Fig. 56-23a Equator Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

92. Fig. 56-23b Truckee River, Nevada Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

93. Fig. 56-23c Kissimmee River, Florida Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

94. Fig. 56-23d Tropical dry forest, Costa Rica Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

95. Fig. 56-23e Rhine River, Europe Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

96. Fig. 56-23f Succulent Karoo, South Africa Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

97. Fig. 56-23g Coastal Japan Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

98. Fig. 56-23h Maungatautari, New Zealand Figure 56.23 Restoration ecology worldwide

99. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 56.5: Sustainable development seeks to improve the human condition while conserving biodiversity The concept of sustainability helps ecologists establish long-term conservation priorities.

100. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Sustainable Biosphere Initiative Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of people today without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The goal of the Sustainable Biosphere Initiative is to define and acquire basic ecological information for responsible development, management, and conservation of Earth’s resources.

101. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Sustainable development requires connections between life sciences, social sciences, economics, and humanities.

102. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Case Study: Sustainable Development in Costa Rica Costa Rica’s conservation of tropical biodiversity involves partnerships between the government, other organizations, and private citizens. Human living conditions (infant mortality, life expectancy, literacy rate) in Costa Rica have improved along with ecological conservation.

103. Fig. 56-24 Life expectancy Infant mortality 200 150 100 50 0 Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) Year 190019502000 30 40 50 60 70 80 Life expectancy (years) Figure 56.24 Infant mortality and life expectancy at birth in Costa Rica

104. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Future of the Biosphere Our lives differ greatly from early humans who hunted and gathered and painted on cave walls.

105. Fig. 56-25 Detail of animals in a 36,000-year-old cave painting, Lascaux, France (a) A 30,000-year-old ivory carving of a water bird, found in Germany (b) Biologist Carlos Rivera Gonzales examining a tiny tree frog in Peru (c) Figure 56.25 Biophilia, past and present

106. Fig. 56-25a Detail of animals in a 36,000-year-old cave painting, Lascaux, France (a) Figure 56.25 Biophilia, past and present

107. Fig. 56-25b A 30,000-year-old ivory carving of a water bird, found in Germany(b) Figure 56.25 Biophilia, past and present

108. Fig. 56-25c Biologist Carlos Rivera Gonzales examining a tiny tree frog in Peru(c) Figure 56.25 Biophilia, past and present

109. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Our behavior reflects remnants of our ancestral attachment to nature and the diversity of life— the concept of biophilia. Our sense of connection to nature may motivate realignment of our environmental priorities.

110. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings You should now be able to: 1.Distinguish between conservation biology and restoration biology. 2.List the three major threats to biodiversity and give an example of each. 3.Define and compare the small-population approach and the declining-population approach. 4.Distinguish between the total population size and the effective population size.

111. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings 5.Describe the conflicting demands that may accompany species conservation. 6.Define biodiversity hot spots and explain why they are important. 7.Define zoned reserves and explain why they are important. 8.Explain the importance of bioremediation and biological augmentation of ecosystem processes in restoration efforts.

112. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings 9.Describe the concept of sustainable development. 10.Explain the goals of the Sustainable Biosphere Initiative.

113. Fig. 56-UN1 Genetic diversity: source of variations that enable populations to adapt to environmental changes Species diversity: important in maintaining structure of communities and food webs Ecosystem diversity: Provide life-sustaining services such as nutrient cycling and waste decomposition

114. Fig. 56-UN2