1. MEIOSIS 3.3

2. Today’s Class Focus on gamete production (meiosis) and how cells go from being diploid to haploid Curriculum – 3.3 U1 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce 4 haploid nuclei – 3.3 U2 The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes – 3.3 U3 DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids – 3.3 U4 The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation – 3.3 U5 Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random – 3.3 U6 Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis – 3.3 U7 Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation – 3.3 U8 Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation

3. 10.1 Meiosis HL3

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7. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 7 An homologous pair of chromosomes…

8. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 8 An homologous pair of chromosomes… …replicates during S-phase interphase…

9. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 9 …giving two pairs of sister chromatids, each joined at the centromere. centromere sister chromatids An homologous pair of chromosomes… …replicates during S-phase interphase…

10. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 10 The homologous pair associates during prophase I, through synapsis…

11. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 11 The homologous pair associates during prophase I, through synapsis… …making a bivalent.

12. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 12 Crossing-over might take place between non-sister chromatids in prophase I…

13. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 13 Crossing-over might take place between non-sister chromatids in prophase I… …leading to recombination of alleles.

14. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 14 In anaphase I, the homologous pair is separated but the sister chromatids remain attached. This is the reduction division.

15. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 15 Check your language. This image shows… A.Four separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Non-disjunction.

16. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 16 A.Four separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Non-disjunction. Check your language. This image shows…

17. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 17 A.Two separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Crossing-over. Check your language. This image shows…

18. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 18 A.Two separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Crossing-over. Check your language. This image shows…

19. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 19 A.Two separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Homologous chromosomes. Check your language. This image shows…

20. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 20 A.Two separate chromosomes. B.A bivalent. C.One pair of sister chromatids. D.Homologous chromosomes. Check your language. This image shows…

21. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 21 A.8 separate chromosomes. B.Two bivalents. C.Two pairs of sister chromatids. D.Two homologous chromosomes. Check your language. This image shows…

22. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 22 A.8 separate chromosomes. B.Two bivalents. C.Two pairs of sister chromatids. D.Two homologous chromosomes. Check your language. This image shows…

23. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 23 Interphase In the S-phase of the interphase before meiosis begins, DNA replication takes place. Chromosomes are replicated and these copies are attached to each other at the centromere. The attached chromosome and its copy are known as sister chromatids. Following S-phase, further growth and preparation take place for meiosis.

24. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 24 Prophase I The homologous chromosomes associate with each other, to form bivalents. The pairs of sister chromatids are joined by the centromere. Non-sister chromatids are next to each other but not joined. This bivalent is composed of: -One pair of homologous chromosomes -Which have replicated to form two pairs of sister chromatids.

25. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 25 Prophase I Crossing-over between non-sister chromatids can take place. This results in recombination of alleles and is a source of genetic variation in gametes. The homologous chromosomes associate with each other, to form bivalents. The pairs of sister chromatids are joined by the centromere. Non-sister chromatids are next to each other but not joined. The homologous pair is separated in anaphase I. The joined sister chromatids are separated in anaphase II. This bivalent is composed of: -One pair of homologous chromosomes -Which have replicated to form two pairs of sister chromatids.

26. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 26 Metaphase I The bivalents line up at the equator. Random orientation occurs and is a significant source of genetic variation. There are 2 n possible orientations in metaphase I and II. That is 2 23 in humans – or 8,388,068 different combinations in gametes!

27. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 27 Anaphase I Spindle fibres contract. Homologous pairs are separated and pulled to opposing poles. This is the reduction division. Non-disjunction here will affect the chromosome number of all four gametes.

28. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 28 Telophase I New nuclei form and the cytoplasm begins to divide by cytokinesis. The nuclei are no longer diploid.

29. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 29 Interphase II There is no Synthesis phase in Interphase II.

30. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 30 Prophase II The nuclei break down. No crossing-over occurs. Chromosomes condense & become visible.

31. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 31 Metaphase II Pairs of sister chromatids align at the equator. Spindle fibres form and attach at the centromeres. Random orientation again contributes to variation in the gametes, though not to such an extent as in metaphase I. This is because there is only a difference between chromatids where crossing-over has taken place.

32. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 32 Metaphase I vs II: Genetic Variation Lots of variation in gametes produced Random orientation of homologous pairs, which may have a great diversity in alleles present Therefore many possible combinations of alleles could be pulled to each pole Some variation in gametes produced Random orientation of sister chromatids Variation only in regions where crossing over has taken place in prophase I (recombination of alleles)

33. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 33 Anaphase II Spindle fibres contract and the centromeres are broken. The pairs of sister chromatids are pulled to opposing poles. Non-disjunction here will lead to two gametes containing the wrong chromosome number.

34. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 34 Telophase II New haploid nuclei are formed. Cytokinesis begins, splitting the cells. The end result of meiosis is four haploid gamete cells. Fertilisation of these haploid gametes will produce a diploid zygote.

35. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 35 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason:

36. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 36 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason: Homologous pairs are aligned (at equator), so must be metaphase. Crossing-over has already taken place, so must be after prophase I. Homologous pairs have not yet separated, so must be still in meiosis I (metaphase I).

37. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 37 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason:

38. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 38 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason: Homologous pairs have associated. Crossing-over has taken place. Homologous pairs have not aligned at the equator.

39. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 39 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason:

40. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 40 Which phase of meiosis is shown? Why? A.Interphase B.Prophase I C.Metaphase I D.Metaphase II Reason: Homologous pairs have not yet associated. Replication has taken place. Crossing-over has not yet taken place.

41. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 41 Outline the differences between the behaviour of chromosomes in Mitosis and Meiosis 5 marks

42. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 42 Genetic Variation Crossing-over in prophase I Leads to recombination of alleles on the chromosomes. Random orientation in metaphase I Huge number of maternal/paternal chromosome combinations possible in the final gametes. There are over 8million possible orientation in humans (2 23 orientations) Random orientation in metaphase II Further genetic variation arises where there are genetic differences between sister chromatids as a result of crossing-over in prophase I. is almost infinite as a result of meiosis.

43. http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com 43 Genetic Variation Crossing-over in prophase I Leads to recombination of alleles on the chromosomes. Random orientation in metaphase I Huge number of maternal/paternal chromosome combinations possible in the final gametes. There are over 8million possible orientation in humans (2 23 orientations) Random orientation in metaphase II Further genetic variation arises where there are genetic differences between sister chromatids as a result of crossing-over in prophase I. is almost infinite as a result of meiosis. Even more variation! Random fertilisation during sexual reproduction ensures even greater variation within the population. (FUSION OF GAMETES)

46. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/disorders/whataregd/down/

48. Gametes contain two copies or no copies of a particular chromosome. Offspring have an extra or missing chromosome. Figure 15.12a, b Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Nondisjunction Gametes n + 1 n  1 n – 1 n + 1n –1 n n Number of chromosomes Nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I Nondisjunction of sister chromatids in meiosis II (a) (b) Non Disjunction

49. Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21 – The person has 3 (instead of 2) 21 st chromosomes

50. Age of parents vs. Down Syndrome Do the DBQ on pg. 167 – 168: “Parental age and non-disjunction”

51. Karyotype: a property of a cell – the number and type of chromosomes present in the nucleus. Karyogram: picture of chromosomes arranged in pairs, according to their size and structure (banding patterns).

52. Chromosomal abnormalities Trisomy 18, Trisomy 13 Turner’s Syndrome – females with only one X Klinefelter’s Syndrome – males with XXY

53. Karyotyping is used for pre-natal (before birth) diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities. Where do we get the cells for doing a karyotype?

54. 1) amniocentesis Extract amniotic fluid, Inside are some of the baby’s cells Risks: – Miscarriage 1 in 200 to 1 in 400 – Accuracy: 99.4%

55. 2) chorionic villus sampling Tissue sample from the placenta’s projections into the uterus wall Risks? – Slightly higher chance of miscarriage than amniocentesis because it is done earlier in pregnancy. – Accuracy: 98%