1. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute OBJECTIVES You will understand: 1. Core meanings 2. Prototypes 3. The semantics of figurative language 4. Script semantics You will be able to: 1. Apply your deeper understanding of semantics to your teaching

2. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute INTRODUCTION In this module we will look at four more aspects of semantics that are useful to us as language teachers: core meanings; prototypes; figurative language; and script semantics.

3. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute The research done to determine the core meanings of words is called core semantics. Core semantics is important for language teachers for a number of reasons. First, it simply makes us aware that defining words for our students is not quite as simple as we would like it to be. The semantic boundaries of words are actually quite fuzzy. This is not necessarily a problem in everyday life. However, if people’s lives depend upon the precise definition of a word, in medical and legal situations for example, we need to make an effort to clearly define the word in question. Core meanings help us in this task. Core semantics then, forces us think about what is essential to the definition of a word, versus what is not. Finally, core semantics gives us a tool with which to teach our students the variations and permutations of meaning that occur with a single word.

4. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute 1. CORE MEANINGS A. Think about the core meaning of the word ‘cup’. Consider the following ideas: Does a cup need handles? Does it need to be cylindrical? Is it tall or short? Does it matter what you put in a cup? Does it matter what the cup is made of? When does a cup become a mug? When does a cup become a glass? There is actually no right answer for this question, so just have fun doing the analysis!

5. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute B. Look at the sentences below that all contain the word ‘break’. Which sentence or sentences do you think best illustrate the core meaning of the word ‘break’? Justify your answer using your own ideas about the core meaning of the verb ‘break’ as well as your ideas as to which meanings you would teach your students first. Once again, there is no right answer for this question, just enjoy the process. i. The waves broke on the rocks. ii. He broke his leg. iii. The cup broke. iv. He was a broken man. v. She broke his heart. vi. He broke his word. vii. He broke the law.

6. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute PROTOTYPES Given how fuzzy word boundaries are, some researchers have proposed enhancing definitions of word meaning with the best example, or prototype, of that meaning. For example, if we are considering the word bird, the best example might be a robin. An ostrich, on the other hand, might not be a good example of a typical bird, because it does not fly. Once we have a prototype of something, for example a bird, other types of birds would then be categorized as being close to the prototype (like a sparrow) or far from the prototype, like an ostrich. The research into prototypes is called prototype semantics.

7. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Prototypes can fit into a hierarchical way of looking at words. We have super-ordinates, which are essentially category words. An example of a super-ordinate would be ‘bird’. Going down in the hierarchy one level, we have basic words. In our ‘bird’ example, a basic level word would be a robin. Prototypes, then, are the most common example of a basic level word. Going down one more level, we have sub-basic words. In our ‘bird’ example, a sub-basic level word would be the American Robin or another kind of robin.

8. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute

9. Here are some other interesting things about prototypes. When we ask someone for an “off the top of your head” example of a super-ordinate word (such as ‘bird’), the prototype (in this case ‘robin’) is usually the first example mentioned by the majority of people. When children are learning their first language, they typically learn the basic level words and prototypes first, and not the super-ordinates or sub-basic level words. Second language learning, however, has a twist to it. It would be logical if second language learners learned the basic level words, particularly the prototypes, before they learned the sub-basic level words. However, this is not always the case. If a learner is interested in the sub-basic level subject matter, they will actually learn those words before they learn the basic level words and prototypes. The frequency of exposure to a word also comes into play. We particularly see learners acquire sub- basic level words before basic level words and prototypes when the learners are experts in a particular field. For example, you will find an engineer or medical doctor who is learning English with good knowledge of sub-basic level words, which are highly specialized, but not basic level words or prototypes.

10. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Look at the chart in Task Journal 2. Independently, write the first word that comes to mind for each word.

11. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE Thus far in our discussion on semantics, we have been talking about the literal meanings of words. We are now going to add a layer of complexity to the discussion, because semantics also encompasses the figurative meanings of words. Figurative language is language that has a subtle or nuanced underlying meaning, not an obvious and clear surface meaning. The opposite of figurative language is literal language, which is language that is meant to be interpreted exactly as it is written.

12. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute The most common type of figurative language is called metaphor in which we use something concrete and tangible (that we can hear, smell or touch) in order to talk about something abstract or intangible. Here are some examples of metaphors: My love for you grew slowly over time. (my love is like a plant or a living thing) Her confidence blossomed under the loving care of her new parents. (her confidence is like a flower) Your words planted an idea in my head. (the idea is like a plant) He built a strong argument. (the argument is like a building) His hatred ate away at him year by year. (his hatred is like a parasite or a bug or something that eats) Her beauty outshone everyone else’s. (her beauty is like a light)

13. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute If we analyze metaphors in greater detail, we can determine their structure. Each metaphor has a source, which is the concrete idea, and a target, which is the abstract idea that we want to express. Thus we use ’a plant’ (a concrete concept) to express ‘love’ (an abstract concept). If we take all of the metaphors above, we can similarly distinguish the source and the target.

14. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute There are other types of figurative language that semantic researchers look at. These include: 1. Similes, in which one thing is said to be like or similar to another thing. For example, “Her lips are like roses” or “His eyes are as grey as a dove” or “His roar was like that of a lion.” 2. Synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee), in which we use a part of something to mean the whole, or the whole of something to talk about the part. For example, we can use ‘grey beards’ to talk about ‘old men’. 3. Metonymy, in which something closely connected to a thing is used to refer to the whole thing. For example, ‘the crown’ is used to talk about ‘the queen’, and ‘the bench’ is used to talk about ‘the judge’. 4. Personification, in which we talk about objectives as if they were people. For example, we use expressions like ‘the paper said’ and ‘the book tells us’ even though ‘the paper’ and ‘the book’ are not people.

15. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Figurative language also includes irony (the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of the literal meaning of the words, often accomplished through tone), hyperbole (an exaggeration), oxymoron (two words that are a contradiction of each other), and understatement. Native speakers of a language take metaphors and other figurative language for granted. It is only when native speakers try to explain figurative language to non-native speakers that they realize how culturally based figurative language is. In fact, the pervasiveness of figurative language in everyday conversation is one reason why it is impossible to teach a language without making any reference to culture.

16. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Look at Task Journal 3

17. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute A. What concrete concept (or source) can you use to express the following abstract concepts (or targets)? Provide an example sentence. The first one has been done for you as an example.

18. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute SCRIPT SEMANTICS Semantics does not stop merely at the word level. Our word choices are often governed by the situation in which we are communicating. Script semantics is a field of semantics that looks at the meaning choices we make when we follow a template or script for communicating in a particular situation or event. In script semantics we first look at what the roles are in a particular situation, what props are used and what actions take place. We then look at the meaning choices made by each of the participants in the script at different points, and the language that can be used to convey those meaning choices.

19. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute We will demonstrate this with a simple example—greetings between two people who know each other well. The roles are: greeter and person being greeted. There are no props. The action is either a handshake, a hug, or kissing on the cheek, depending upon the genders involved and the degree of familiarity the two participants wish to express. The meaning conveyed is that the two are happy to see each other. The participants also convey information about what has happened in their lives recently. Language used to convey this meaning is: it’s good to see you again, it’s been a long time, how have you been, and so on.

20. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Let’s take a fun example, Trick or Treat at Halloween. The roles are: children dressed in different costumes and homeowners. The props are: candy or other treats, some kind of bag for the children to put the candy in, and different costumes. The actions are: the children knocking on the door, the homeowners opening the door, the children holding out their bags for candy and the homeowners putting the candy in. The meaning conveyed throughout this encounter is that the children would like some candy and the homeowners are happy to give out candy. Language used includes: trick or treat, here you go, I like your costume, thank you for the candy and so on.

21. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Script semantics has become popular with language teachers involved in teaching English for Specific Purposes, such as English for hospitality and tourism, English for medicine, and English for engineering. Teachers of these courses are realizing that most of the communication in professional settings is based upon culturally-agreed upon scripts. A language learner with a large vocabulary will not be able to communicate successfully if they do not know the script required in a particular professional situation. This is exactly the stumbling block that many professionals using English as their second language are encountering. Many courses for professionals, then, focus on scripts and the meanings and language required by those scripts.

22. ACE TESOL Diploma Program – London Language Institute Complete 4 in your Task Journal. Task Journals can be submitted via email to paula@llinstitute.com (preferred) or printed and handed in. paula@llinstitute.com