1. Compilers as Collaborators and Competitors of High-Level Specification Systems David Padua University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

2. Towards a Synthesis There is much interaction and overlap between compilers and code generation from very high level specifications. Both technologies could merge into “supercompiler” technology.  Thesis, antithesis  synthesis

3. Higher Levels of Abstraction… One of the main goals of Software Research is to facilitate program development. Raise the level of abstraction. What rather than how.  Subroutines – Control abstraction  Data abstraction mechanisms

4. … Higher Levels of Abstraction Programming is simplified by using macro operations from a catalog. Modules (subroutines/classes/…)  Part of the language (Fortran 90, MATLAB, SETL)  Standard libraries  Hand–written  Automatically generated  Application specific (usually hand written)

5. Performance and Abstraction In many cases the main mechanism to attain high performance is to develop high-performance library routines.  For example, MATLAB programming style is to use functions as much as possible. This approach does not always work. Real applications make little use of pre-existing libraries.  One reason: Data structures are not always in the right format.  Another: The overhead associated with class accesses. For this reason, with current technology, Higher-level => Lower performance

6. Automatic Generation of Modules from Specifications… Several systems aim at generating the fastest possible routines for certain classes of computations  Relatively simple (algorithms)  Very high performance implementation can be tedious and time consuming. Examples of these systems include  ATLAS  FFTW  Spiral

7. … Automatic Generation of Modules from Specifications Other systems try to simplify the generation of complete applications. Although performance is also a concern, language design and correctness are the most important issues.  Ellpack  GPSS  Many CAD systems

8. ATLAS Generate several versions of BLAS routines  Different tile sizes  Different degrees of unrolling  Loop ordering is fixed Run all and choose the fastest

9. FFTW Recursive divide-and-conquer  Plan: factorization tree  Factorization stop at certain sizes  Execution: call codelets Codelet  Subroutines for small-size FFTs  Optimized and fully-unrolled  Generated by a dedicated compiler Adapt to environment at run-time  Dynamic programming F 1024 F 128 F 16 F8F8 F8F8 F rs = (I r  F s )L(F r  I s )T

10. SPIRAL Formula Generator SPL Compiler Performance Evaluation Search Engine DSP Transform Target Architecture DSP Libraries SPL Formulae C/FORTRAN Programs

11. Supercompilers … Integration of Very High Level Specifications with Conventional Languages Besides conventional subroutines selected from a catalog), the languages accepted by supercompilers would also call “macros” which could be used to generate code as a function of the  Target machine  Value of data  Structure of data  Shape of data  Rest of the program  Numerical properties

12. … Supercompilers … Macros could be subroutines or class methods. Expanding classes could include data representation selection (including data distribution)  SETL  Automatic Dense  Sparse techniques  Automatic data distribution techniques

13. … Supercompilers In theory at least, generating code from specifications rather than from specific HLL implementations should lead to better performance. All the benefits of abstraction without the performance penalty.

14. Vectorizers and High Level Specifications do i=1,n a(i)=b(i)+c(i) d(i)=a(i)+d(i-1) if (m > d(i)) m=d(i) end do do i=1,n a(i)=b(i)+c(i) end do do i=1,n d(i)=a(i)+d(i-1) end do do i=1,n if (m > d(i)) m=d(i) end do a(1:n)=b(1:n)+c(1:n) d(1:n) = lin-rec(a,d,1,n) m=min(m,d(1:n)

15. Back End Compilers and Supercompilers … Back End Compilers take care of  Machine code generation  Register allocation  Conventional optimizations But not really trusted by today’s module generation systems (Competitors)  The existence of ATLAS is just an indictment of current compiler technology.  FFTW does clustering to improve register allocation.  Spiral does a variety of conventional optimizations.

16. Optimizations in Spiral SPL Compiler C/Fortran Compiler Formula Generator * High-level scheduling * Loop transformation * High-level optimizations - Constant folding - Copy propagation - CSE - Dead code elimination * Low-level optimizations - Instruction scheduling - Register allocation

17. Basic Optimizations (FFT, N=2 5, SPARC, f77 – fast – O5)

18. Basic Optimizations (FFT, N=2 5, PII, g77 – O6 – malign-double)

19. Basic Optimizations (FFT, N=2 5, MIPS, f77 – O3)

20. Can Module Generators Rely on Back End Compilers ? Not always, but using backend compilers will always be necessary for portability (Collaborators). But … Compilers can hinder efforts to get good performance.  For example, bad register allocation can have a serious negative impact. Need a standard set of commands to control transformations applied by compiler

21. … Back End Compilers and Supercompilers In Supercompilers transformations should be done by the Back End whenever possible. Reason: Applies to all parts of the program not only to very high-level components.

22. Search … Search is an important component of module generators. Also used by conventional compilers, but compilers usually work with static predictions rather than actual execution times.  KAP tried all possible loop permutations.  SGI-PRO tries many combinations of unrolling of unrolling.  Superoptimizer and similar systems.  Most compiler optimization algorithms are heuristics with no search involved.

23. … Search … In Supercompilers search could also be done across several algorithms looking for a good data representation and data distribution for the whole program.

24. … Search … Search strategy could make use of actual execution times combined with static performance prediction  Static prediction not very accurate today.  Tight performance bounds to prune the search.  Some decisions could be made at run-time IF statements/multiversion loops JIT compilers

25. … Search Some search could be based on data dependent behavior  Profiling  “Representative” data set Search strategy is important given that space of possibilities is often large and not monotonic. And it is difficult to know how far the search process is from the optimum.  Need to develop tight bounds.

26. Size of Search Space N# of formulasN 2121 12929 20,793 2 12 10 103,049 2323 32 11 518,859 2424 112 12 2,646,723 2525 452 13 13,649,969 2626 1972 14 71,039,373 2727 9032 15 372,693,519 2828 42792 16 1,968,801,519

30. Coverage Need a class of specifications large enough to represent most of the computation. Effectiveness of approach will depend on coverage. Current libraries are a good start. But … it is not clear how much these libraries typically cover. To impact programming in general current approaches would have to be extended to other domains such as sparse computations, sorting, searching. …

31. Conclusions As we understand better algorithm choices and their impact in performance it becomes feasible to automate much of the process of selecting data structures and algorithms to maximize performance. A first step: a repository of routines/classes with several implementations for each subroutine. But generation based on context could lead to better performance. In particular generation from very high-level specifications could allow the generation of code combining several operations in ways that is impossible to conceive with current encapsulation mechanisms.