1. DESIRABLE DIFFICULTIES Mike Griffiths m.griffiths@gold.ac.uk Associate Lecturer (Psychology and the Graduate School)

2. Tapping a tune Newton (1990) Percentage of tunes that listeners got right 50% Percentage of tunes that tappers thought listeners would get right 5% (Unpublished PhD thesis, cited by Bjork, 2006)

3. Tapping a tune: a parable for teaching “Every beginning instructor discovers sooner or later that his first lectures were incomprehensible because he was talking to himself, so to say, mindful only of his point of view. He realises only gradually and with difficulty that it is not easy to place one’s self in the shoes of students who do not yet know about the subject matter of the course.” Piaget (1962) This is not (necessarily) a desirable difficulty!

4. So … We don’t always know whether we are getting our message across. But now for an even more uncomfortable thought: Do students (or even teachers) know the best techniques for learning?

5. Desirable difficulties Are difficulties which: Promote cognitive engagement by the learner –i.e. make them think! And/or promote long term learning at the expense of short term performance –Hence, desirable difficulties may appear to be undesirable.

6. Distributed practice Baddeley & Longman (1979) Postmen learning to type postcodes Training per day 2  2 hours 2  1 hours 1  2 hour 1  1 hour Mean hours to learn 50 43 35 Mean satisfaction (1 = high) 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.4

7. Intensive teaching In the opinion of one respected and experienced Professor: “It is only possible to make three main points in a one hour lecture. Five in a two hour lecture.” (personal communication)

8. Interleaving vs blocking “Blocking”: doing the same thing repeatedly Interleaving: mixing things up

9. Rohrer and Taylor, 2007 Learning formulas for the volume of different solids Blocked vs interleaved Correct answers: 89% 60% 20% 63%

10. Kornell & Bjork, 2008 Learn the styles of 12 artists….

11. Kornell & Bjork, 2008 Six examples of each artist’s work presented, with the artist’s name –3 seconds each on a computer screen Either –blocked (six of artist A, six of artist B, etc) –or interleaved (all mixed up) Assessment: given fresh paintings and asked to say which was the artist

12. Kornell & Bjork, 2008

13. Interleaving: Why might it work? At least three possible explanations (Bjork and Bjork, 2011): 1.You have to resolve interference, hence you notice similarities and differences. 2.Reloading. If you do A, then B, then A, etc, you have to keep ‘reloading’ the memory for how to do A. 3.It spaces out the practice of any one thing.

14. Varying the conditions of learning Mannes & Kintsch (1987) Learn about microbes from an article and accompanying outline Events: 1.Outline (order consistent or inconsistent with the article) 2.The article 3.Tests

15. Varying the conditions of learning Consistent-outline students did better at –cued-recall –recognition Inconsistent-outline students did better at –inference verifications –problem-solving tasks that required deeper understanding

16. Varying the conditions of learning Even learning the same material in different environments Smith, Glenberg & Bjork, 1978 Learn word lists in two environments –Context P (on slides, in cluttered room) –Context M (tape recording, in small cubicle) Recalled in neutral environment

17. Varying the conditions of learning

18. Making life harder for students “If a student has a relatively easy time learning a new lesson or concept, both the student and instructor are likely to label the session as successful even if the student is unable to retrieve the information at a later time.” [emphasis added] “[I]n some cases making material harder to learn can improve long-term learning and retention. More cognitive engagement leads to deeper processing, which facilitates encoding and subsequently better retrieval.” Diemand-Yauman, Openheimer and Vaughan (2011)

19. Diemand-Yauman et al. (cont) 222 high school students aged 15-18 Learning materials –Control condition: unchanged; or –‘Disfluent’ condition: Made harder to read (e.g. unusual fonts, or out of focus) –Duration: one lesson plan (1½ - 4 weeks) Results?

20. Diemand-Yauman et al. (cont) Results Students’ feelings (e.g. liking for the class) Classroom test performance No difference between fluent and disfluent Disfluent better (d = 0.45, p <.001)

21. Tests as study events Which works best: reading the textbook over and over again, or testing yourself on the material? Familiarity with the material gives you a false sense of security Testing yourself (or being tested) gives more cognitive engagement

22. Studying vs testing Roediger & Karpicke (2004) Reading passages containing 30 ‘idea units’ 5 min periods: study (S) or test (T) Mean times Ps read passage S S S S14.2 S S S T10.3 S T T T3.4 Ideas recalled 5 mins 83% 78% 72% Ideas recalled 1 week 40% 56% 61%

23. “Many common study habits … turn out to be counterproductive. Underlining and highlighting, rereading, cramming and single-minded repetition of new skills create the illusion of mastery, but gains fade quickly.” Brown, Roedeger and McDaniel (2014)

24. “More complex and durable learning... Comes from self-testing introducing certain difficulties in practice, waiting to re-study new material until a little forgetting has set in and interleaving the practice of one skill or topic with another.” Brown, Roedeger and McDaniel (2014); reformatted

25. Questions?

26. Further reading (1) Bjork, E.L and Bjork, R. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In Pew, Hough and Pomerantz (Eds): Psychology and the Real World. http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/EBjork_RBjork_2 011.pdf http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/EBjork_RBjork_2 011.pdf Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D.M. and Vaughan, E.B. (2011). Fortune favours the bold (and the italicized): effects of disfluency on educational outcomes. Cognition 118.

27. Further reading (2) Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L. III, McDaniel, M. A. (2104). Make it Stick: the Science of Successful Learning. London: Belknap Press. [370.1523 BR)] (Tip: The rest is a fun read, but if you want to cut to the chase, go to the final chapter.) Thanks also to Robert Bjork for his presentation to the Psychology Learning and Teaching Conference, 2006.

28. Exercises 1.What reservations or questions do you have about ‘desirable difficulties’? 2.Can you remember any occasions when ‘desirable difficulties’ have helped your own learning?