2. AP Psych Chapter 7 1

3. Studying Memory: Information Processing Models 2 Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval) Sequential Process

4. Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory. 3 Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis

5. 1.Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2.Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory. 4 Modifications to the Three-Stage Model

6. Working Memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory ( some disorders that affect working memory— schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s) 5

7. Encoding: Getting Information In 6 How We Encode 1.Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2.However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

8. Automatic Processing 7 We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1.Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2.Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3.Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

9. 8 Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

10. 9 Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

11. 10 Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

12.  Memorize this list…. 1.Cat11. King 2.Apple12. Hammer 3.Ball13. Milk 4.Tree14. Fish 5.Square15. Book 6.Face16. Tape 7.House17. Arrow 8.Door18. Flower 9.Box19. Key 10.Car20. Shoe 11 Memory Activity

13. 1.Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. 2.Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. 1.Primacy effect 2.Recency effect 12 Memory Effects

14. 1.Encoding by meaning (semantic) 2.Encoding by images (iconic) 3.Encoding by organization 4.Encoding by sound (accoustic) 13 What We Encode

15.  Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words Types of Encoding Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. Encoding exercise

16. Which type works best?

17. Self-Reference Effect  An example of how we encode meaning very well.  The idea that we remember things (like adjectives) when they are used to describe ourselves. Peg-word system

18. Encoding Meaning (semantic) Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

19. Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. 18 Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo

20. 1.The next-In-Line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next. 2.Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered. 3.Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it. Things to remember about Encoding

21. Spacing Effect  We encode better when we study or practice over time.  DO NOT CRAM!!!!!  …yes, cramming is better than nothing

22. Tricks for encoding  Mnemonic Devices: Mnemonic techniques are used to connect new information to previously learned information to make learning easier.  Visual imagery  “Peg word” system  Method of loci  Acronyms 21

23. Peg Memory System Activity 1.oven 2. couch 3.Bed 4.t.v. 5.Dryer 6.Shower 7.Vase 8.Window 9.Coffee table 10.pan 11.Rug 12.Lamp 13.Computer 14.Microwave 15.Fan 16.Door 17.Closet 18.Picture fram 19.Toilet 20.mirror 22

24. Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. 23 1.Chunking 2.Hierarchies

25. Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below. 24 Chunking 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

26. 25 Chunking Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it. HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

27. Hierarchy 26 Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

28. 27 Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

29. Storage: Retaining Information 28

30. Storage: Retaining Information 29 Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

31. Sensory Memory 30 Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

32. Sensory Memory 31 The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80 Percent Recognized 0.15 0.300.50 1.00 Time (Seconds)

33. 32 Sensory Memories Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

34. Working Memory 33 Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

35. Working Memory Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20-30 seconds). 34 Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.

36. Capacity 35 You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). George Miller F V C Z R G Q L K M T D Ready?

37. F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M 36 Chunking The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.” FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks

38. Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. 37 CH?? The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec. CHJ MKT HIJ 547 544 541 …

39. Working Memory Duration 38

40. Long-Term Memory 39 Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

41. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. 40 The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers

42. 41 Memory Feats

43. Storage and Long-Term Memory  We have yet to find the limit of our long-term memory.  For example, Rajan was able to recite 31,811 digits of pi.  At 5 years old, Rajan would memorize the license plates of all of his parents’ guests (about 75 cars in ten minutes). He still remembers the plate numbers to this day.

44. Memory Stores 43 Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM EncodingCopyPhonemicSemantic CapacityUnlimited7±2 ChunksVery Large Duration0.25 sec.20 sec.Years

45. 1.Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks. 2.Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze. 44 Storing Memories in the Brain

46. Synaptic Changes In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning. 45 Photo: Scientific American

47. Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. *pathway thru grass *hot potato faster and faster 46 Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller

48. Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events 47 Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

49. 48 Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

50. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. 49

51. 50

52. The Hippocampus  Damage to the hippocampus disrupts our memory.  Left = Verbal  Right = Visual and Locations  The hippocampus is the like the librarian for the library which is our brain.

53. Anterograde Amnesia (HM) 52 Anterograde Amnesia No New Memories Surgery After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Memory Intact

54.  The loss of memory for events that occur after a brain injury Anterograde Amnesia

55. Implicit Memory HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. 54 HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A

56.  Retrograde Amnesia  The loss of memory for events that occurred prior to a brain injury Retrograde Amnesia

57. 56 Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

58. 57 Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Spanky’s Yearbook Archive

59. Measures of Memory 58 In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) 1.Name the capital of France. a.Brussels b.Rome c.London d.Paris

60. Measures of Memory 59 In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) 1.The capital of France is ______.

61. Measures of Memory 60 In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list 1 day later Saving Original Trials Relearning Trials Relearning Trials 10 5 50% X 100

62. 61 Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose

63. 62 Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

64. Context Effects (State-dependent memories) 63 Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).

65. Déjà Vu Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. 64 © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

66. Context Effects After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Rovee- Collier, 1993). (State-dependent memory) 65 Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier, Rutgers University

67. Moods and Memories We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (mood-dependent memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent. 66 Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

68. Forgetting 67 An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.

69. 68 Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode.

70. Storage Decay 69 Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.

71. Retaining Spanish Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years. 70 Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis

72. Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. 71 Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

73. Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information. 72

74. Types of Retrieval Failure Proactive Interference  The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.  New memory is affected.  PROactive=Can’t remember the NEW If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

75. Types of Retrieval Failure Retroactive Interference  The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.  Old memory is affected.  “Retro” = “old” When you finally remember this year’s locker combination, you forget last year’s. RETROactive interference = can’t remember the OLD

76. 75 Retroactive Interference Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.

77. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. 76 Sigmund Freud Culver Pictures

78. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages. 77

79. While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. 78 Memory Construction Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Elizabeth Loftus)

80. Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. 79 Misinformation and Imagination Effects Depiction of the actual accident.

81. Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? 80 Misinformation

82. 81 Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

83. 82 Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).

84. Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse. 83 Children’s Eyewitness Recall

85. Are memories of abuse repressed or constructed? Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories. However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed. 84 Memories of Abuse

86. Constructed Memories Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories. 85 Don Shrubshell

87. 1.Injustice happens. 2.Incest and other sexual abuse happen. 3.People may forget. 4.Recovered memories are commonplace. 5.Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable. 6.Memories of things happening before 3 years of age are unreliable. 7.Memories, whether real or false, are emotionally upsetting. 86 Consensus on Childhood Abuse Leading psychological associations of the world agree on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse:

88. 1.Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. 2.Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. 3.Make material personally meaningful. 4.Use mnemonic devices:  associate with peg words — something already stored  make up a story  chunk — acronyms 87 Improving Memory

89. 5.Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood. 6.Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. 7.Minimize interference: 1.Test your own knowledge. 2.Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know. 88 © LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis

90. Illustrated Memory Topics  Divide a sheet of white paper into 6 sections.  In each square:  Write a definition of the topic in your own words  Draw a simple illustrated example of the topic  Color. Neatness counts. Not Homework Pass Eligible! 1.Method of Loci 2.Capacity of Short Term/Working Memory 3.Capacity of Long Term Memory 4.Flashbulb memory 5.Explicit/declarative memory 6.Implicit/procedural memory 7.Anterograde amnesia 8.Retrograde amnesia 9.Mood-congruent 10.State-dependent (context/location) 11.Retroactive interference 12.Proactive interference 89