1. Hwajung Lee

2.  Models are simple abstractions that help understand the variability -- abstractions that preserve the essential features, but hide the implementation details from observers who view the system at a higher level.  Results derived from an abstract model is applicable to a wide range of platforms.

3.  Two primary models that capture the essence of interprocess communication:  Message-passing Model  Shared-memory Model

4.  Process actions in a distributed system can be represented in the following notation:  System topology is a graph G = (V, E), where V = set of nodes (sequential processes) E = set of edges (links or channels, bi/unidirectional)

5.  Four types of actions by a process:  Internal action ▪a process performs computations in its own address space resulting in the modification of one or more of its local variables.  Communication action ▪a process sends a message to another process or receives a message from another process  Input action ▪A process reads data from sources external to the system  Output action ▪A process sends data outside of the system (called “environment”)

6.  Possible Dimension of Variability in Distributed Systems  Type of Channels ▪ Point-t0-point or not ▪ Reliable vs. Unreliable channels  Type of Systems ▪ Synchronous vs. Asynchronous systems

7.  Channels in a Message Passing Model  Message propagate along directed edges called channels  Communications are assumed to be point-to- point (a broadcasting is considered as a set of point-to-point communications)  Reliable vs. unreliable channels ▪ Reliable channel : a loss or corruption of message is not considered ▪ Unreliable channel: It will be considered in a later chapter

8. Axiom 1. Message m sent  message m received Axiom 2. Message propagation delay is arbitrary but finite. Axiom 3. m1 sent before m2  m1 received before m2. P Q

9.  Broad notion of Synchrony  Senders and receivers maintain synchronized clocks and operating with a rigid temporal relationship.  However, in practice, there are many aspects of synchrony, and transition from a fully asynchronous to a fully synchronous model is a gradual one.  Thus, we will see a few examples of the behaviors characterizing a synchronous systems.

10. Send & receive can be blocking or non-blocking Postal communication is asynchronous: Telephone communication is synchronous Synchronous clocks Physical clocks are synchronized with bound Synchronous processes Lock-step synchrony Synchronous channels Bounded delay Synchronous message-order First-in first-out channels Synchronous communication Communication via handshaking Any restriction defines some form of synchrony …

11. Address spaces of processes overlap M1M1 13 2 4 M2M2 Concurrent operations on a shared variable are serialized

12. 0 3 2 1 State reading model Each process can read the states of its neighbors 0 3 21 Link register model Each process can read from and write to adjacent registers. The entire local state is not shared.

13.  Communication via broadcast  Limited range  Dynamic topology

14.  Mobile agent  a program code that migrates from one process to another  Can interact with the variables of programs running on the host machine, use its resources, and take autonomous routing decisions.  Strong mobility/weak mobility  Ex.: Dartmouth’s D’Agents, IBM’s Aglets

15.  Model: (I, P, and B)  I is the agent identifier and is unique for every agent.  P designates the agent program  B is the briefcase and represent the data variables to be used by the agent

16.  Computing the lowest price of an item that is being sold in n different stores  I: agent identifier  P: price(i) denote the price of the item in store i  B: Briefcase variable best initially best = price(home) while current ≠ home do if price(i) < best then best := price(i) else skip end if; visit next; (next is determined by a traversal algorithm) end while

17. One object (or operation) of a strong model = More than one objects (or operations) of a weaker model. Often, weaker models are synonymous with fewer restrictions. One can add layers (additional restrictions) to create a stronger model from weaker one. Examples HLL model is stronger than assembly language model. Asynchronous is weaker than synchronous. Bounded delay is stronger than unbounded delay (channel)

18. Stronger models - simplify reasoning (design an algorithm) - simplify correctness proof - but, needs extra work to implement it Weaker models - are easier to implement. - Have a closer relationship with the real world “Can model X be implemented using model Y?” is an interesting question in computer science. Sample problems (Weak  Strong) Non-FIFO to FIFO channel Message passing to shared memory Non-atomic broadcast to atomic broadcast Complicated Simple using Implement

19. P Q buffer m1m4m3m2 Sends out m1, m2, m3, m4, … 1234567

20. {Sender process P}{Receiver process Q} var i : integer {initially 0} var k : integer {initially 0} buffer: buffer [0..∞] of msg {initially  k: buffer [k] = emptyrepeat {STORE} send m[i],i to Q; receive m[i],i from P; i := i+1 store m[i] into buffer[i]; forever {DELIVER} while buffer[k] ≠ empty do begin deliver content of buffer [k]; buffer [k] := empty; k := k+1; end forever

21. Observations (a) Needs Unbounded sequence numbers and (b) Unbounded number of buffer slots  Both are bad Now solve the same problem on a model where (a) The propagation delay has a known upper bound of T. (b) The messages are sent out @r per unit time. (c) The messages are received at a rate faster than r.  The buffer requirement drops to (r xT). Thus, Synchrony pays. Question. How to solve the problem using bounded buffer space if the propagation delay is arbitrarily large? By using acknowledgements

22. {Read X by process i } read x[i] {Write X:= v by process i } - x[i] := v ; - atomically broadcast v to every other process j (j ≠ i); - after receiving broadcast, process j (j ≠ i) sets x[j] to v. Understand the significance of atomic operations. It is not trivial, but is very important in distributed systems

23. Atomic broadcast = either everybody or nobody receives {process i is the sender} for j = 1 to n-1 (j ≠ i) send message m to neighbor[j] (Easy! But…) There needs to be a lock or some types of synchronization or ack to make sure all the receivers got the message and update their data  We will talk more details on this in Chapter 4.4 Now include crash failure as a part of our model. What if the sender crashes in the middle of the task? How to Implement atomic broadcast in presence of crash?  Chapter 16 covers this issue. Note: Faults and Fault-Tolerant Systems are covered in Part D of the textbook, which are from Chapter 12 to Chapter 17

24. Reactive vs Transformational systems A reactive system never sleeps (like: a server or servers) A transformational (or non-reactive systems) reaches a fixed point & no further change occurs in the system after that. (Examples?) Named vs Anonymous systems In named systems, process id is a part of the algorithm. In anonymous systems, it is not so. All are equal. (-) Symmetry breaking is often a challenge. All processes start from the same initial state and will execute identical instructions at every step. But the outcome needs to be asymmetric. (Ex) Leader Election Algorithm (+) Easy to switch one process by another with no side effect. (+) Saves log 2 N bits from Space complexity point of view, which needs to store its name where N is the number of processes. Routing Table Calculation

25. Space complexity  How much space is needed per process to run an algorithm? (measured in terms of N, the size of the network) Time complexity  What is the max. time (number of steps) needed to complete the execution of the algorithm? Message complexity  How many message are exchanged to complete the execution of the algorithm?

26. Bit complexity  Measures how many bits are transmitted when the algorithm runs. It may be a better measure, since messages may be of arbitrary size.

27. Consider initializing the values of a variable x at the nodes of an n-cube. Process 0 is the leader, broadcasting a value v to initialize the cube. n=dimension = 3 and N = total number of processes = 2 n = 8 Consider initializing the values of a variable x at the nodes of an n-cube. Process 0 is the leader, broadcasting a value v to initialize the cube. n=dimension = 3 and N = total number of processes = 2 n = 8 source Each process j > 0 has a variable x[j], whose initial value is arbitrary. Finally, x[0] = x[1] = x[2] = … = x[7] = v Each process j > 0 has a variable x[j], whose initial value is arbitrary. Finally, x[0] = x[1] = x[2] = … = x[7] = v

28. {Process 0} m.value := x[0]; send m to all neighbors {Process i > 0} repeat receive m {m contains the value } ; if m is received for the first time then x[i] := m.value ; send x[i] to each neighbor j > I else discard m end if forever What is the message complexity? m m m Number of edges = |E| =1/2*N log 2 N

29. {Process 0} x[0] := v {Process i > 0} repeat if there exists a neighbor j < i : x[i] ≠ x[j] then x[i] := x[j] (PULL DATA) {this is a step} else skip end if forever What is the time complexity? (i.e. how many steps are needed?) Arbitrarily large. Why? A sender is passive and it is a receiver’s responsibility to pull the value.

30. {Process 0} x[0] := v {Process i > 0} repeat if there exists a neighbor j < i : x[i] ≠ x[j] then x[i] := x[j] (PULL DATA) {this is a step} else skip end if forever 15 10 12 27 99 32 14 53 Node 7 can keep copying from 3, 5, 6 indefinitely long before the value in node 0 is eventually copied into it. Node 7 can keep copying from 3, 5, 6 indefinitely long before the value in node 0 is eventually copied into it.

31. Now, use “large atomicity”, where in one step, a process j reads the state x[k] of each neighbor k < j, and updates x[j] only when these are equal, but different from x[j]. What is space complexity per process? What is the time complexity? How many steps are needed? Time complexity is now O(n 2 ) = O(log 2 N) 2 (n = dimension of the cube) Why? log 2 N

32. Round Complexity (Time Complexity in rounds) Rounds are truly defined for synchronous systems. An asynchronous round consists of a number of steps where every eligible process (including the slowest one) takes at least one step. How many rounds will you need to complete the broadcast using the large atomicity model? (ex) In a system with four processes 0, 1, 2, 3 1 2 0 2 1 32 1 0 1 3  How many rounds is this? An easier way to measure complexity in rounds is to assume that processes executing their steps in lock-step synchrony Two rounds