1. Mendel and Meiosis Chapter 11

2. Mendel’s Laws of Heredity Heredity – passing on traits from parents to offspring Gametes – sex cells; they have a haploid number of chromosomes; they have only ½ as many chromosomes as normal cells or one copy of each gene

3. Fertilization – when a male gamete unites with a female gamete Zygote – fertilized cell Genes are chemical factors that determine traits Alleles – different forms of a gene

4. Mendel’s experiments Pea plants are self-pollinating; male and female parts in the same flower Only studied one trait at a time and subjected his data to statistical analysis First cross was between two purebreds or true breeding plants (tall x short) All offspring were tall

5. Mendel’s experiments (cont) Genetically speaking, the result was a hybrid with one allele for tall and one for short Then, Mendel allowed the hybrids to self-pollinate (hybrid x hydbrid) Second generation offspring were ¾ tall and ¼ short

6. Rule of Unit Factors Each organism has two factors/alleles for each trait; the two alleles are located on different copies of a chromosome, one from each parent

7. Rule of Dominance In a hybrid where only one trait can be observed, that trait is said to be dominant over the trait that is not visible; the other trait is said to be recessive

8. Law of Segregation In sexually reproducing organisms, offspring have one gene from each parent, these are segregated in gamete (sex cell) formation

9. Law of Independent Assortment Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other

10. Phenotypes and Genotypes Phenotype is the physical appearance of a trait in an organism Genotype is the gene/allele combination of an organism Homozygous is an organism that has two of the same alleles for each trait Heterozygous is an organism that has two different alleles for each trait

11. Crosses Monohybrid cross = Mendel’s first crosses; studying one trait and its inheritance at a time Dihybrid cross studies the relationship between the inheritance of 2 traits

12. Punnett Squares Monohybrid cross (one trait) is a two by two grid  One parent’s genotype is listed at the top; one allele per column  The other parent’s genotype is listed along the side; one allele per row  Squares are filled in with one allele from one parent (top) and one from the other (side)

13. Dihybrid cross (two traits) is a four by four grid Very similar to the monohybrid cross, but you must account for all possible gene combinations from parents

14. probability chance that you will get one result over another Punnett squares are a way to determine probability the more data you have, the closer to the predicted probability your results should be

15. Meiosis

16. Genes and chromosomes Diploid – 2n - cell/organism that contains two of each type of chromosome (one copy from each parent) Haploid – n - cell (sex cell) that contains only one copy of each type of chromosome

17. Homologous chromosomes – two chromosomes of the same type or a pair of similar chromosomes in a diploid cell

18. Meiosis – process of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell from diploid to haploid; used for reproduction  sperm – male gametes  egg – female gametes

19. Meiosis I – similar to mitosis EXCEPT: In Prophase I, homologous chromosomes come together as tetrads during metaphase I, tetrads line up along the center of the spindle the tetrad is pulled apart during anaphase I, so the homologs are now separate from each other in two different cells

20. when tetrad are formed, crossing over may happen; this basically means that homologous chromosomes could “trade ends

23. Meiosis II no chromosome replication before meiosis II chromosomes line up along center of spindle in metaphase II sister chromatids are pulled apart in anaphase II result of both divisions together is 4 haploid cells

25. Gamete Formation Meiosis produces 4 genetically different haploid cells, whereas mitosis produces 2 genetically identical cells. In males, 4 equal-sized gametes are produced.

26. Gamete Formation In females, only 1 large egg cell is produced, along with 3 cells called polar bodies that are not involved in reproduction.

28. Genetic Recombination Crossing over just refers to “trading ends” between homologous chromosomes during the tetrad grouping in prophase I and metaphase I Also caused by the law of independent assortment; different chromosomes will be segregated independently of one another

29. Nondisjunction when chromosomes fail to separate properly during meiosis Monosomy – lacking a chromosome Trisomy – extra chromosome Tetrasomy – 2 extra chromosomes

30. Polyploidy Organisms have more than 1 set of chromosomes Rare in animals; usually results in death or, in humans, mental retardation Plants have a higher occurance rate; can create a “better” or healthier plant, commercially or biologically

31. Gene Linkage and Maps Genes on the same chromosome are said to be linked If they are far apart on the chromosome, crossing over is more frequent genes maps are charts of chromosomes with gene locations on them (ex. Human Genome Project)