1. Galaxies I AST 112

2. The Universe Is the Universe contained entirely within the Milky Way?

3. Milky Way Inhabitants Open clusters are groups of newly formed stars We can measure the distance to them using Main Sequence Fitting

4. Milky Way Inhabitants Globular clusters’ origins aren’t exactly known We measure the distance to them using variable stars

5. Milky Way Inhabitants Nebulae glow because of either: – Embedded stars or – Reflected starlight Easy to identify the chemistry No well-defined shape

6. Milky Way Inhabitants Occasionally a star would brighten significantly and then fade – This was referred to as a nova – Please don’t mix this up with what we’ve covered!

7. Milky Way Inhabitants These are objects that were fairly well understood and whose distance could at least be estimated, if not accurately measured. There was one type of object that baffled astronomers: “Spiral Nebulae”

8. Spiral Nebula

9. Spiral Nebulae Spiral nebulae appear “out of place” in our night sky – They have structure – Could not get distance estimates

10. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Harlow Shapely: – The Universe IS contained within the Milky Way Heber Curtis: – The Universe IS NOT contained within the Milky Way

11. The Shapley-Curtis Debate The Shapley-Curtis Debate (aka The Great Debate) : “Spiral Nebulae” – Contained in the Milky Way? – Or are their own “Island Universes”? The (eventual) outcome would determine our understanding of the size and structure of the universe!

12. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Shapley: – Spiral Nebulae part of the Milky Way – Consider sizes: Shapley overestimated size of Milky Way Claimed that if Andromeda were not in the Milky Way, would have to be 100,000,000 LY away to be as large as it is

13. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Ancient Greek astronomers: – 4 LY to the nearest star? Yea right! Shapley: – 100,000,000 LY to a “spiral nebula”? Yea right!

14. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Adriaan Van Maanen claimed to observe Messier 101 rotating – Measured degrees per year If these objects are truly millions of LY away, Van Maanen’s calculations suggest the galaxies’ edges would break the speed of light

15. The Shapley-Curtis Debate A “nova” occurred in Andromeda that seemed to outshine the entire “spiral nebula” How could a “nova” outshine an entire “island universe”?

16. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Curtis: – “Spiral nebulae” are island universes – Cities of stars just like the Milky Way

17. Andromeda and the Milky Way What is the most obvious similarity that you see between Andromeda and the Milky Way?

18. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Curtis argued: – Dust lanes in Andromeda just like in the band of the Milky Way Explains Zone of Avoidance Vesto Slipher saw large Doppler shifts in other galaxies – Can’t remain gravitationally bound – Transverse velocity should be similar to radial velocity Should show proper motion (and it doesn’t)

19. The Shapley-Curtis Debate So who is winning at this point?

20. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Curtis admitted: – If Van Maanen’s observation of M101’s rotation is accurate, I’m wrong

21. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Curtis saw records of 10 “novae” in Andromeda – On average, 1/10000 as bright as here Many more than observed in the Milky Way So why so many novae concentrated in one small part of the sky?

22. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Van Maanen showed his own observation of M101 rotating was incorrect!

23. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Now who’s winning?

24. The Shapley-Curtis Debate Debate was a draw but highlighted issues Three years later, Edwin Hubble used the 100 inch telescope at Mount Wilson – Saw individual stars – Found Cepheid variable stars in Andromeda – 900,000 LY away (still off)

25. Cepheid Variable in Andromeda

26. Scopes are better now! It is easy to see elements that we recognize in our galaxy in images of other galaxies.

27. Zone of Avoidance Sombrero Galaxy (M104) has dust lanes We have a “zone of avoidance” where we cannot see globular clusters Easy to look at M104 and assume they also have a “zone of avoidance”

28. Issues To Reconcile We can measure the rotation of galaxies. – We use Doppler shift – We cannot actually see the galaxy rotating, as Van Maanen claimed to The “novae” in Andromeda were of course supernovae – And they do outshine entire galaxies for a short time!

29. Issues To Reconcile “Spiral Nebulae” are galaxies! They are not nebulae! We will not use that term anymore!

30. Cepheid Variable Stars Cepheid Variables used for distances to galaxies up to 100,000,000 LY away They are bright Pulsation period related to luminosity

31. Type 1a Supernovae White dwarf supernovae – Reach 1.4 M Sun Chandrasekhar Limit – “It’s always the same star” that explodes – Extremely consistent luminosity Bright (10 billion L Sun at peak)

32. Type 1a Supernovae

33. Tully-Fisher Relation Relation between luminosity of spiral galaxies and their rotation speed Measure Doppler shifts of each side – Tully-Fisher relation then gives luminosity