1. Louis XVI, was executed by guillotine (1793). His death caused leaders of Prussia, Austria, Britain, Spain, and Holland to declare war on France. “Committee of Public Safety”, lead by Maximilien Robespierre; Death penalty for enemies of France. “levee en masse” or mass male conscription for military service.

2. Moderates regained control of the French government (1794). Robespierre is executed and Reign of Terror ends. Known as the “Thermidorian Reaction.”

3. New government formed, “Directory.” Protection of natural rights. Abolished slavery in the colonies. Education reforms. Stopped “primogeniture” (the right of the eldest son to inherit all his parent’s property).

4. Nationalism led to a coup led by the general Napoleon (1799). France returned to one-man rule governed by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (r. 1804-1814).

5. One element of the French Revolution that Napoleon preserve was the secular legal code. “the Code Napoleon” a. All citizens were equal b. Right to trial by jury c. Freedom of religion “Concordat of 1801”, made peace with Catholic Church.

6. Defeated Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Created puppet kingdom in northern Italy. Brought end to the Holy Roman Empire. Created “Confederation of the Rhine” a unification of Germany states. Nationalism sprang up in areas conquered by Napoleon.

7. “Continental System”, an international embargo of British trade. Failed because other nations refused to comply.

8. Napoleon’s downfall; France invaded Spain and Portugal (1807). Britain helped fight France. “Peninsular Campaign” tied up French troops and resources.

9. Invaded Russia. Victorious at the “Battle of Borodino”, outside Moscow, and occupied the capital city. Tsar Alexander I refused to sign a peace treaty. Unable to remain in Moscow without supplies, his army retreated. Entered Russia with 600,000, left with 100,000 (1812).

10. Attack by the allied forces of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain (1814). Napoleon abdicated his throne. Napoleon exiled to island of Elba.

11. “Congress of Vienna,” ended Napoleonic Wars. Boundaries and former dynasties reestablished. Goal was to keep peace through a “balance of power.”