2. Grammar and Language Change Plan 1. Evolution of languages 2.Grammaticalization 3.Language change 4.Correctness and standardization:Mistakes, Variation, Dialect Forms, Alternative usage 5.Authorities: Descriptive and prescriptive rules 6.Lexical and structural ambiguity

3. 1.Evolution of languages All languages change over time.This process is viewed as a goal-directed evolution. Language change is seen as a product of simultaneous “downward” and “upward” dynamics involving reorganization, reduction and creation. On the one hand, forms of expression become routinized over time, and lose impact and precision. On the other, language users are continually innovating in the interest of greater expressiveness. Some changes result in greater simplification, others in greater complexity. From the point of view of communicative efficiency, the end result is neutral, by and large, languages continue to provide their speakers with the recourses they need to achieve their purposes.

4. 2.Grammaticalization Much of grammar starts out from lexis.New grammatical elements are created through the grammaticalization of ordinary words such as nouns and verbs. Grammaticalization is a universal process, and there are remarkable similarities between languages all over the world in the words that are grammaticalized, the purpose for which they are used, and the routes through which they develop into auxiliaries, particles and inflections, modifying functions as they do so.

5. Nowadays English is developing two marginal auxiliaries.The metaphorical expression “be set up”coming in meaning “be about to”is becoming common in journalistic writing in context like”interest rate are set up to change” where the original sense of physical action has been bleached out. The verb “to see” is increasingly used to conduct sentences like “The last half year has seen a significant reduction in accident rates”.(There has been…) Grammaticalization is unidirectional:meanings become more abstract and generalized, forms are commonly reduced morphologically and phonetically at the same time.

6. Formal reduction can be seen in English past modal structures(should have=shoulda;could have=coulda; would have=woulda). Most strikingly it is seen in the future auxiliary”going to”.The common informal spelling”gonna” partly reflects the phonetic change partly it shows the colloquial speech.

7. Language change Language change doesn’t take place overnight.Small-scale changes to specific forms can spread quite quickly.But changes affecting larger linguistic systems can take centuries to work themselves out.The English progressive has been spreading through the language for several hundred years and here are still verbs which are not used in progressive(verbs of mental perception, verbs showing likes and dislikes, showing feelings).The formation of comparatives and superlatives is following the same way.”more”and”most” first took over three-syllable adjectives(beautifullest) and now are moving into two- syllable words(commoner).But nowadays “more common” is more common.

8. The modal system is also changing;research reveals that such verbs as “may”and”must” are becoming less frequent. English changed greatly since the 11th century. The much slower development of English over the last six or seven centuries shows the development of literacy which helps to standardize the language and puts breaks on development.

9. 4.Correctness and standardization Language change may be of a natural and universal phenomenon but people notice these changes and refer them to “mistakes”.Grammarians today speak about mistakes, regional varieties and dialects.When someone describes another person’s language as “incorrect” he may refer to any of five things:-foreign learner's mistakes;-native learners’ mistakes;--the use of dialect forms;-alternative usage;-the use of vernacular or slang forms. There are significant differences between these types of linguistic behavior and not all of them may be called “incorrect”.

10. Mistakes It’s normal for non-speakers to make mistakes.When we see such mistakes we understand that the sentences are comprehensible but they contradict grammar.Mistakes are also common when speakers are off their own ground,using language they have not quite mastered. A sign in an Oxford baker’s “This is a food premise. Please, do not smoke”. Clearly, the person who wrote it had not known that the word”premises” is used only in plural, it is a formal one. Written language should always follow grammar patterns, otherwise all irregularities are considered to be mistakes. Variation Languages vary in time(they change),in space(they have regional dialects),across society(they have class-based varieties),between individuals( people use different styles in different situations).

11. Dialect forms Dialects are often regarded as corrupted forms of language,spoken by ignorant people who make mistakes because they haven’t learned grammar. In fact all English dialects have a long history.Linguistic analysis shows that any dialect has a rich and systemic grammar but it is different from a standard counterpart.A standard language is also a variety that had been adopted for official purposes.The dialect of London area gradually evolved into a standard English- the form of language generally accepted for use in government, law, business, education and literature.

12. Alternative usage Usage varies within,as well as between, dialects.Some speakers of Standard British English,for instance, say”different to…” others “different from”; some say”under these circumstances” others”in these circumstances;”less people” and”fewer people” are both common. Such differences occur as a result of language change- new forms do not replace the older ones, and alternative ways of speaking may coexist for some time.In different situations people behave differently.For example, somebody can tell to a friend” I got ripped in a shop”but to the manager he would say”I was overcharged”.We use constructions”I’ve” and “don’t” in informal speech and writing, in formal language we should use full forms.

13. Authorities:Descriptive and prescriptive rules The word”authority” can relate to truth or power.A person in authority tells you what to do, and what not to do.Linguistic authorities produce two types of rules:descriptive(authoritative) and prescriptive(authoritarian). Descriptive rules are the statements of the rules that exist in the language. Prescriptive rules are linguistic regulations.Such rules appear in usage guides.Many were originated in the 18 th and 19h centuries by English grammarians.

14. 6.Lexical and structural ambiguity Ambiguity is something that can mean two different things.Such things are ambiguous.Sometimes the word is used to mean something that is unclear.”Ambi” from Greek means “two”. Words that are ambiguous can lead to misunderstanding.E.g.The peasants are revolting. This sentence is ambiguous because it can mean:1.- the peasants are standing in the streets with placards shouting “We want more pay”(“revolting” is a verb here).2.- the peasants are horrible, disgusting (“revolting” is an adjective here). The phrase “synthetic buffalo hides” is ambiguous because it can mean that “the buffalo hides” are made of synthetics or”the hides that are synthetic”.

15. The difference in meaning is due o the difference in structures which are permitted by he rules of syntax,rather than to any ambiguous word.The following sentences are also ambiguous: -The children drew five squares and triangles(may be understood as five squares and five triangles or five squares and any number of triangles). -The boy saw a man with a telescope( it’s unclear whether the boy was with a telescope or the man was with a telescope). Ambiguity often occurs with verbs “be” and “have”. E.g. Robert has a sister named Mary. Mary has seen many films. Mary has to read many books.

16. E.g. They are moving sidewalks.(“moving”is an adjective when”are” is understood as a verb). When”are” is an auxiliary verb,then the meaning is”the workers are moving sidewalks”.Ambiguity is a basis for jokes:A mother says to her little son:”Jonny, go over the road and see how old Mrs. Jones is”.The boy comes back and says to his mother:”Mrs.Jones says it is none of my business”.The mother meant”old” in a friendly way, but it can also mean:find out Mrs.Jones’s age. The opposite to ambiguous is unambiguous which means that something is perfectly clear and can have only one meaning.