1. CS153A Announcements Project 2 TA will distribute IPAQ’s this Wednesday. Groups of 3 See Derek if you cannot attend discussion class

2. Interrupts, Traps, Syscalls, and Exceptions What is the common denominator of these events?

3. Interrupts, Traps, Syscalls, and Exceptions Interrupts - signals raised by hardware external to the MP that needs a response (help) from the MP Caused by hardware Can happen at any time Regardless of what instruction(s) the MP is executing Traps - signals caused by execution of instructions Caused by software

4. Lifetime of an interrupt... External hardware signals request CPU Checks if interrupt can be taken Jumps to interrupt handler Executes handler Returns to interrupted task

5. Interrupt Signal Signals from the hardware When I/O devices need attention from the MP they let the MP know by signaling it I/O chip pin for this purpose is attached to an input pin of the MP MP Serial Port Network Interface Interrupt reqest pins This signal tells the MP that network chip needs service This signal tells the MP that serial chip needs service

6. Interrupts Signals from the hardware When I/O devices need attention from the MP they let the MP know by signaling it Devices that drive serial ports  When a character arrives from the serial port  Signals the MP with an interrupt to get the MP to take the character from where it is stored in the device  When the serial device has transmitted a character and is ready to send another, it signals the MP so that the next characters are sent to the device Network interfaces, etc.  When data arrives on the network, the network signals the MP so that it will take the data from the network device buffer  When sending, the network signals the MP when it is ready to send additional data

7. Interrupts Is there an alternative to interrupts when communicating with peripheral devices? Any advantages, disadvantages? are interrupts really the fastest way of communication with peripheral devices? can an interrupt based system route 50000 packets/second if network device interrupts on every packet received?

8. Interrupt Request (IRQ) MP input pin to which device interrupt pins are attached Lets the MP know when some chip in the circuit wants attention When an IRQ is asserted MP stops doing what it was doing (executing instructions) New stack frame created  Saves the next address on the stack  Like a return address when a CALL instruction is executed  However the `CALL’ is done automatically Jumps to an interrupt routine  Interrupt handler  Interrupt service routine (ISR)

9. When an IRQ is asserted An IRQ can happen during ANY instruction MP completes execution of the instruction that is executing All of the instructions currently in the pipeline Interrupt handler Subprogram Instructions that handle specific hardware signals Does some cleanup also  Turn on interrupts if they were turned off  Reset interrupt-detection hardware Very short, very fast set of instructions

10. Interrupt Routines Task Code... addi3 R2 R3 R2 subi3 R1 R2 R1 subi3 R4 R1 R4... Interrupt Routine push AR4 //return address addi 1h SP // - save it on stack... //read char from hw into R1 //Store R1 value into memory... //Reset serial port hw //Reset interrupt hardware... pop AR4 subi 1h SP bu AR4 //may be special return

11. Interrupt Routines Notice: Interrupt can occur between any two instructions CALL instruction: compiler knows what code came before and after the call Compiler can write code to save/restore registers used in the callee The compiler (when generating code for interrupt handler) Or assembly programmer Does not know when interrupts will occur Therefore ALL registers used by the interrupt handler must be saved and restored to ensure register preservation  AKA saving the context

12. Disabling Interrupts Every system allows interrupts to be disabled in some way Devices can be told not to interrupt MP can be told to ignore interrupts In addition, the MP can ignore some subset of interrupts  Certain interrupts are ignored, others are not Commonly individual interrupts can be disabled If an interrupt occurs while turned off, the MP remembers Deferred, not really disabled

13. Disabling Interrupts Nonmaskable interrupt An interrupt that cannot be turned off ever Used for exceptional circumstances  Beyond the normal range of ordinary processing  Catastrophic event  Power failure Question: How do you reset Mars Rover if gets stuck in an infinite loop?

14. Interrupt Priorities Each interrupt request signal (IRQ) can be assigned a priority Programs can set the lowest priority it is willing to accept By setting this priority higher, a program effectively disables all interrupts below this priority Most systems use prioritized interrupts and allow individual interrupts to be turned off When multiple IRQs are raised at the same time MP invokes the handler of each according to (highest) priority

15. Example: Priorities in RM 7000 MIPS RM 7000: High performance- RISC 13 interrupts: 10 external 1 timer 2 software 16 interrupt levels All interrupts can be software prioritized.

16. Interrupt Handlers Commonly, a table is used Holds addresses of interrupt handler routines  Interrupt vectors Called an interrupt vector table Indexed by a unique number assigned to each interrupt Never changes - implemented with the system Location  Known/fixed location  Variable location w/ known mechanism for telling the MP where it is When an IRQ is raised MP looks up the interrupt handler in the table Uses the address to jump to

17. Example: RM 7000 Interrupt Vectors Interrupt Vectors are at a fixed address. If exception is an interrupt and IV bit in CAUSE register is set vector = 0x200 + (IPL * SPACING ) else vector = 0x180 endif If BEV is set PC = vector + 0xbfc0 0000 else PC = vector + 0x8000 0000 endif

18. Example: 80386 Interrupt Vectors Interrupt descriptor table can reside anywhere CPU uses IDT Limit and IDT base registers for interrupt vector lookup.

19. Figure taken from Intel 80386 Programmer’s Reference

20. Interrupt Nesting When an interrupt occurs while an interrupt handler is executing For some systems, this is the default behavior When priorities are used - only a higher priority interrupt can interrupt the handler  If a lower priority IRQ is raised, the current handler completes before the low-priority IRQ is handled For others, special instructions are inserted into interrupt routines to indicate that such behavior can occur  For this case, all interrupts are automatically disabled whenever an interrupt handler is invoked  Unless the instructions are present which re-enables interrupts

21. Example: Exception Nesting in RM 7000 Little help from hardware moves PC to EPC sets status, cause registers etc. Software k0 and k1 registers are interrupts only Interrupt stack: exclusive for nested interrupts Question: What is the maximum depth of interrupt stack?

22. Example: Exception Nesting in 80386 Hardware knows where stack is pushes EIP, flags and code segment to stack sets status, cause registers etc. Even supports “interrupt tasks” Hardware invokes tasks from interrupts Saves entire context -similar to task switch Hardware scheduler controls execution Separate address space

23. Figure taken from Intel 80386 Programmer’s Reference

24. Shared Data Problem Very little can be done in the interrupt handler To ensure that interrupts are handled quickly To ensure that control returns to the task code ASAP Interrupt routine must tell task code to do followup processing To enable this, the interrupt routine and the task code communicate using shared variables.

25. Shared Data Problem Interrupt routine must tell task code to do followup processing Via shared memory (variables)  Used for communication between handler and task code  Shared However, shared data is a well-known, difficult problem  Handlers-tasks  Across tasks  Across threads Because two+ entities are interleaved - and each can modify the same data!

26. Nuclear Reactor Monitoring System Monitors two temperatures that must always be equal Code monitors these temperatures Raises alarm if they are ever unequal static int iTemperatures[2]; void interrupt vReadTemperatures () { iTemperatures[0] = //read value from hardware iTemperatures[1] = //read value from hardware } void main() { int iTemp0, iTemp1; while(TRUE) { iTemp0 = iTemperatures[0]; iTemp1 = iTemperatures[1]; if (iTemp0 != iTemp1) { //set off alarm! } Interrupt can occur between any two instructions!

27. Nuclear Reactor Monitoring System Monitors two temperatures that must always be equal Code monitors these temperatures Raises alarm if they are ever unequal static int iTemperatures[2]; void interrupt vReadTemperatures () { iTemperatures[0] = //read value from hardware iTemperatures[1] = //read value from hardware } void main() { int iTemp0, iTemp1; while(TRUE) { iTemp0 = iTemperatures[0]; iTemp1 = iTemperatures[1]; if (iTemp0 != iTemp1) { //set off alarm! } Interrupt can occur between any two instructions! Problem!

28. Nuclear Reactor Monitoring System Monitors two temperatures that must always be equal Code monitors these temperatures Raises alarm if they are ever unequal static int iTemperatures[2]; void interrupt vReadTemperatures () { iTemperatures[0] = //read value from hardware iTemperatures[1] = //read value from hardware } void main() { while(TRUE) { if (iTemperatures[0] != iTemperatures[1]) { //set off alarm! } Interrupt can occur between any two instructions!

29. Nuclear Reactor Monitoring System static int iTemperatures[2]; void interrupt vReadTemperatures () { iTemperatures[0] = //read value from hardware iTemperatures[1] = //read value from hardware } void main() { while(TRUE) { if (iTemperatures[0] != iTemperatures[1]) { //set off alarm! } PUSH AR3 LDIUSP, AR3 L11LDIU@2E2h, R0 CMPI@2E3h, R0 BZL11 // code in if part of the branch (executed when not taken) BUL11 Interrupt can occur between any two instructions! Problem!

30. Shared Data Problem Difficult because They don’t happen every time the code runs  In the previous example, the interrupt could happen at other points in main’s execution and doesn’t cause a problem Events (interrupts) happen in different orders at different times  Non-deterministic (not necessarily repeatable) Possible solution Disable interrupts whenever the task code uses shared data

31. Disabling IRQs to Solve the Shared Data Pbm static int iTemperatures[2]; void interrupt vReadTemperatures () { iTemperatures[0] = //read value from hardware iTemperatures[1] = //read value from hardware } void main() { int iTemp0, iTemp1; while(TRUE) { disable(); iTemp0 = iTemperatures[0]; iTemp1 = iTemperatures[1]; enable(); if (iTemp0 != iTemp1) { //set off alarm! }

32. Atomic Code Shared-data problem Task code and interrupt routine share data Task code uses the data in a way that is not atomic Solution: Disable interrupts for task code that uses data Atomic code: Code that cannot be interrupted Critical section: set of instructions that must be atomic for correct execution Atomic code Code that cannot be interrupted by anything that might modify the data being used Allows specific interrupts to be disabled as needed  And other left enabled

33. More Examples Hardware timer asserts an IRQ each second Invoking vUpdateTime Where is the problem? static int iSeconds, iMinutes, iHours; void interrupt vUpdateTime() { if (++iSeconds >= 60) { iSeconds = 0; if (++iMinutes >= 60) { iMinutes = 0; if (++iHours >= 24) { iHours = 0;} } // update the HW as needed } long lSecondsSinceMidnight() { return( (((iHours*60)+iMinutes)*60)+iSeconds); }

34. More Examples Hardware timer asserts an IRQ each second Invoking vUpdateTime Is this a solution? static int iSeconds, iMinutes, iHours; void interrupt vUpdateTime() { if (++iSeconds >= 60) { iSeconds = 0; if (++iMinutes >= 60) { iMinutes = 0; if (++iHours >= 24) { iHours = 0;} } // update the HW as needed } long lSecondsSinceMidnight() { disable(); return( (((iHours*60)+iMinutes)*60)+iSeconds; enable(); }

35. More Examples Hardware timer asserts an IRQ each second Invoking vUpdateTime Is this a solution? static int iSeconds, iMinutes, iHours; void interrupt vUpdateTime() { if (++iSeconds >= 60) { iSeconds = 0; if (++iMinutes >= 60) { iMinutes = 0; if (++iHours >= 24) { iHours = 0;} } // update the HW as needed } long lSecondsSinceMidnight() { disable(); long retn = (((iHours*60)+iMinutes)*60)+iSeconds; enable(); return retn; }

36. More Examples Hardware timer asserts an IRQ each second Invoking vUpdateTime Is this a solution? What happens if lSecondsSinceMidnight() is called from within a critical section?: disable();... lSecondsSinceMidnight();... enable(); Check before disabling  Disadvantages? static int iSeconds, iMinutes, iHours; void interrupt vUpdateTime() { if (++iSeconds >= 60) { iSeconds = 0; if (++iMinutes >= 60) { iMinutes = 0; if (++iHours >= 24) { iHours = 0;} } // update the HW as needed } long lSecondsSinceMidnight() { disable(); long retn = (((iHours*60)+iMinutes)*60)+iSeconds; enable(); return retn; }

37. Interrupt Latency Interrupts are a tool for getting better response from our systems Response is commonly the performance metric used for embedded systems

38. Interrupt Latency MP response time (to interrupts) Consists of (per interrupt): Longest period of time (this/all) interrupts are disabled Execution time for any interrupt routine that has higher priority than the currently executing one Context switching overhead by the MP  Time to sense the IRQ, complete the currently executing instruction(s), build stack frame and invoke handler Execution time of the current interrupt routine to the point that counts as a “response” Reducing response time Short handlers, short disable time

39. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) Interprocessor interrupt Another processor causes an IRQ  System must respond in 650  s  Handler requires 300  s Worst case wait response time for interprocessor IRQ Handler routine (300  s) Longest periods interrupts are disabled (250  s) 550  s - meets the response requirement

40. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) Interprocessor interrupt Another processor causes an IRQ  System must respond in 650  s  Handler requires 300  s Network device Interrupt routine takes 150  s Worst case wait response time for interprocessor IRQ? Will interprocessor interrupt deadline be met? Can you improve on this?

41. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) Interprocessor interrupt Another processor causes an IRQ  System must respond in 650  s  Handler requires 300  s Network device Interrupt routine takes 150  s Worst case wait response time for interprocessor IRQ?700 Will interprocessor interrupt deadline be met?no Can you improve on this? Make network dev. Lower prty.

42. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) Interprocessor interrupt Another processor causes an IRQ  System must respond in 650  s  Handler requires 350  s Network device Interrupt routine takes 100  s Lower priority than interprocessor interrupt Worst case wait response time For the interprocessor IRQ? For the network device?

43. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) Interprocessor interrupt Another processor causes an IRQ  System must respond in 650  s  Handler requires 350  s Network device Interrupt routine takes 100  s Lower priority than interprocessor interrupt Worst case wait response time For the interprocessor IRQ? 600 For the network device? 700

44. Interrupt Latency Example Task code disable time 125  s to read temp values (shared with temp. hw) 250  s to read time value (shared with timer interrupt) What happens if two disable periods happen back to back?

45. Interrupt Latency Disabling interrupts Doing it often, decreases your reponse time Some systems (real-time) makes guarantees about response time As you design the system you must ensure that such guarantees (real-time or not) are met For some codes, you can avoid disabling interrupts Via careful coding To decrease interrupt latency Makes code fragile Difficult to ensure that you’ve got it right

46. Volatile Variables Most compilers assume that a value in memory never changes unless the program changes it Uses this assumption to perform optimization However, interrupts can modify shared data  Invalidating this assumption Holding memory values in registers is a problem An alternate solution to disabling interrupts is to identify single piece of data that is shared with interrupt routines Make sure that the compiler performs NO optimizations on instructions that use the data  All reads and writes are executed even if they seem redundant Force a memory read each time the variable is used

47. Volatile Variables 500 0x1002 =&flag LDIU1002h, AR4... L11... CMPI10h, *AR4 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... int flag = 500; foo() {... while (flag != 10) {…;} Raise_alarm();... } LDIU1002h, AR4... LDIU*AR4, R7 L11... CMPI10h, R7 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... OPTIMIZEOPTIMIZE Memory

48. Volatile Variables 10 0x1002 LDIU1002h, AR4... L11... CMPI10h, *AR4 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... int flag = 500; foo() {... while (flag != 10) {…;} Raise_alarm();... } LDIU1002h, AR4... LDIU*AR4, R7 L11... CMPI10h, R7 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... OPTIMIZEOPTIMIZE Memory

49. Volatile Variables 10 0x1002 LDIU1002h, AR4... L11... CMPI10h, *AR4 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... volatile int flag = 500; foo() {... while (flag != 10) {…;} Raise_alarm();... } LDIU1002h, AR4... LDIU*AR4, R7 L11... CMPI10h, R7 BEQL11 CALL&Raise_alarm... Memory

50. Volatile Variables Many compilers support the use of the keyword volatile Identifies variables as those that are shared Tells the compiler to NOT store the variable value in a register Ensures that the value is the most recent  There is no problem of inconsistency between a register and memory location that both refer to the same variable If compiler doesn’t support volatile and you don’t want to disable interrupts Hand modify the assembly Turn off optimizations

51. Interrupts Overview The most important aspect to embedded system design Enable designers to split work - modularity Background work (tasks performed while waiting for interrupts)  Unaware of foreground work Foreground work (tasks that respond to interrupts) They can be Precise - the system knows the exact cause and how to respond Imprecise - catastrophic event; abort Asynchronous and synchronous (to MP clock)…

52. Interrupts, Traps, and Exceptions Interrupt - a raised CPU signal External - raised by an external event Internal - generated by on-chip peripherals Can happen any time -- asynchronous interrupts Trap - software interrupt (synchronous interrupts) Mechanism that changes control flow Bridge to supervisor mode (system calls) Requires additional data to be communicated  Parameters, type of request  Return values (status) Exception - unprogrammed control transfer General term for synchronous interrupts On some machines these include internal async interrupts

53. Interrupts, Traps, and Exceptions External Interrupts - a raised CPU signal Asynchronous to program execution May be handled between instructions Simply suspend and resume user program Traps (and exceptions) Exceptional conditions (overflow) Invalid instruction Faults (non-resident page in memory) Internal hardware error Synchronous to program execution Condition must be remedied by the handler

54. Restarting After a Synchronous Interrupt Restart - start the instruction over May require many instructions to be restarted to ensure that the state of the machine is as it was Continuation - set up the processor and start at the point (midstream) that the fault occurred Process state is so complete that restart is not necessary A second processor handles the interrupt so the first processor can simply continue where it left off

55. Traps - Implementing System Calls Operating System Special program that runs in priviledged mode and has access to all of the resources and devices Manages and protects user programs as well as resources  Via keeping user programs from directly accessing resources  Uses a separate using a user mode for all non-OS related activities Presents virtual resources to each user  Abstractions of resources are easier to use  files vs. disk sectors  Virtual memory vs physical memory Traps are OS requests by user-space programs for service (access to resources) Begins at the handler

56. Traps in the TMS320Cx TMS320Cx system calls Put index of system call start instruction into register IR0 Trap 2 Branch to main trap handler Find address (given index in IR0) of the right system call  In the interrupt vector table Jump there to continue execution