1. Defining Intelligence Almost all intelligence tests provide an overall score (IQ) along with subscores measuring specific mental abilities. Intelligence, though, is a collection of many different strengths, not all of which are included on tests available today. IQ tests can be administered either in large groups or individually. Two popular IQ tests are Stanford-Binet and Wechsler (the WISC-IV is popular for children).

2. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence Intelligence includes 3 broad, interacting types that are balanced to achieve success in life: Analytical intelligence (information-processing skills) Creative intelligence (capacity to solve novel problems) Practical intelligence (application of intellectual s/kills in everyday situations)

3. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences Defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit people to engage in a wide variety of culturally valued activities. There is no “factor g” (general intelligence), according to Gardner. He proposes at least 8 independent intelligences Neurological evidence for these different intelligences is weak.

4. Gardner’s different intelligences Linguistic (good with words and language) Logico-mathetmatical (strong logic & math skills) Musical Spatial (artistic ability) Bodily-kinesthetic (athletics) Naturalist (biologist) Interpersonal (tuned in to the needs of others) Intrapersonal (Introspective, self- knowledge)

5. General findings about IQ North American black children score 15 points lower, on average, than white children, but the difference is shrinking Hispanic children fall midway between black and white children IQ gap between middle-SES and low SES children is about 9 points. Around age 6, IQ becomes more stable than it was at earlier ages, and it correlates moderately well (.50-.60) with academic achievement.

6. Nature vs. Nurture About half the differences in IQ among children can be traced to genetic makeup. IQ can also be greatly improved by an advantaged home life. Adoption studies show that black children adopted into well-off homes during the first year of life have average IQ of 110-117 by mid- childhood (20 to 30 points higher than black children from impoverished homes), so environment does make a huge difference.

7. Test bias? Some experts reject the idea that IQ tests are biased because IQ predicts academic achievement equally well for majority and minority children. Others believe that lack of exposure to certain communication styles and knowledge, as well as negative stereotypes about ethnic groups, contribute to test bias and undermine children’s performance. No one really knows the answer to this question, although IQ testing is considered useful and unlikely to be suspended by school systems.

8. Traditional vs. Constructivist Classrooms Traditional: teacher is the sole authority for rules, knowledge, and decision-making; h/she does most of the talking. Students are relatively passive. Constructivist: students are encouraged to construct their own knowledge; grounded in Piaget’s theory; consists of lots of learning centers, small groups, and a teacher who guides them.

9. Which view is “best”? Pendulum has swung back and forth in North America for the last 20 years about how best to conduct classes. Today, traditional classrooms are the norm; there’s a “back to basics” movement. Older elementary school children tend to have better achievement test scores than constructivist children do. Constructivist children do better in critical thinking and show more social & moral maturity; have more positive attitudes toward school.

10. Social-constructivist classrooms A new approach to education that is grounded in Vygotsky’s theory Children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers Sort of a cross between constructivist and traditional classrooms Work very well

11. “Grouping” in classrooms: A good practice? In grouping, students are assigned to homogeneous groups in which children of similar ability are taught together. Low-group students get more drill on basic facts, have less discussion, and progress at a slower pace. Can lead to a “self-fulfilling prophecy” that they won’t do well. Widens the gap between high and low achievers. Bottom line is: it’s good for the “smart” children, but not good for the ones with lower ability.

12. Children with Special Needs American law states that all children must be placed in the “least restrictive environment” that meets their educational needs. Mainstreaming: students with learning disorders spend part of the day in a regular classroom Full inclusion: they spend the whole day in a regular classroom; developed largely as a result of parental pressure

13. What kinds of students are mainstreamed? Those with mild to moderate mental retardation: IQ between 55 and 70 who also show problems in adaptive behavior of skills of everyday living Most mainstreamed children are those who have learning disabilities—great difficulties with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading.

14. Does mainstreaming and full inclusion work? Benefits some academically, but not many. Achievement gains depend on both the severity of disability and the support services available. Children with disabilities are often rejected by their regular-classroom peers. Students with mental retardation are overwhelmed by their peers’ social skills and cannot interact adeptly in conversation or games. Could make them feel worse about themselves.

15. When mainstreaming works best Children with mild to moderate learning disabilities do best under these 2 circumstances: They’re fully included but receive consistent support from a special ed teacher, who consults with their regular teacher and spends time in their classroom everyday. They receive instruction from a special ed teacher in a resource room for part of the day and are mainstreamed for the remainder.

16. Gifted children Giftedness is defined in different ways, but the traditional definition includes those whose IQ is above 130. Typically, children are also assessed in the areas of academic achievement, creativity and talent, and motivation to determine true giftedness. Gifted children are usually stronger in some areas than others and have uneven areas of talent or academic strength.

17. How do gifted children fare in society? It used to be thought that gifted children were social outcasts…they lacked social skills. Evidence shows, though, that gifted people are usually MORE socially well-adjusted than average people are. However, extreme giftedness often results in social isolation. Many gifted people like to spend time alone, pursuing their own interests, and are highly driven and nonconforming, which leaves them out of step with peers.

18. Emotional difficulties in the gifted Compared to normal IQ peers, gifted young people, especially girls, report more emotional and social difficulties, including low self-esteem and depression. Also known for challenging authority and can get in trouble Often have “asynchronous development”—while academically gifted, they might lag behind socially or emotionally.