1. Psychology 3051 Psychology 305: Theories of Personality Lecture 3

2. Psychology 3052 Scoring Your Questionnaire In order to score your questionnaire, you must compute 5 scores. Score 1: Sum items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21 Score 2: Sum items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22 Score 3: Sum items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23 Score 4: Sum items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24 Score 5: Sum items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25

3. Psychology 3053 Lecture 3 Questions That Will be Answered in Today’s Lecture Research Methods, continued 7.How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued) 8. What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures?

4. Psychology 3054 Dispositional Perspective on Personality: Trait Approach 1.What are traits? 2.What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? 3.Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed?

5. Psychology 3055 4. Convergent validity: Refers to the degree to which a measure relates to measures that assess conceptually similar constructs (i.e., constructs that are theoretically related to the construct of interest). E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in convergent validity should be correlated with measures of:  depression  neuroticism  negative affectivity How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued)

6. Psychology 3056 5. Discriminant validity: Refers to the degree to which a measure does not relate to measures that assess conceptually dissimilar constructs (i.e., constructs that are not theoretically related to the construct of interest). E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in discriminant validity should not be correlated with measures of:  agreeableness  need for cognition  political attitudes (i.e., liberal vs. conservative)

7. Psychology 3057 Often, convergent and discriminant validity are examined simultaneously; this is a powerful method by which to demonstrate the validity of a measure. E.g., Results of a study that simultaneously examined the convergent and discriminant validity of a self-esteem measure: DepNeurNegAffAgreeNCognPolatt SE-.68-.57 -.63.06.09 -.02

8. Psychology 3058 the validity of personality measures? Response set: A tendency to respond to the items that comprise a questionnaire in a biased manner (i.e., in a manner that does not reflect the content of the items) There are two types of response sets that present a significant threat to the validity of personality measures. What are response sets and how do they threaten

9. Psychology 3059 1. Acquiescence  Refers to a tendency to agree with an item, irrespective of the item’s content.  E.g., Rate the item “I like to socialize” using the following scale: 1 = SD, 2 = D, 3 = N, 4 = A, 5 = SA A participant who acquiesces would select “5” = Strongly Agree.

10. Psychology 30510  Remedy for acquiescence: Include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in the questionnaire.  Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic. E.g. I like to socialize.  Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic. E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.

11. Psychology 30511  E.g., Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale  Negatively-keyed items are reverse scored (5  1, 4  2, 3 = 3, 2  4, 1  5); this prevents the participant who acquiesce from obtaining an extremely high score. I take a positive attitude toward myself On the whole, I am satisfied with myself I certainly feel useless at times At times I think I’m no good at all (+ keyed) (-) keyed

12. Psychology 30512 I take a positive attitude 12345 toward myself. I certainly feel useless at times.12345 Reverse score negatively-keyed item: Average Score = 5 Average Score = 3 I take a positive attitude 12345 toward myself. I certainly feel useless at times.54321

13. Psychology 30513 2. Socially desirable responding (SDR)  Refers to a tendency to respond to items in a way that promotes a favorable self-image.  A pervasive problem in personality research because, for most personality characteristics, one pole is more desirable than the other. E.g., Honest vs. Dishonest Friendly vs. Unfriendly Optimistic vs. Pessimistic

14. Psychology 30514  Three remedies for SDR: (b) Use neutral items to describe both positive and negative characteristics. E.g., I am friendly vs. I am comfortable talking to people who I don’t know well. (c) Use a separate measure to assess participants’ tendency to engage in SDR. E.g., Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Paulhus Deception Scales (a) Administer questionnaires anonymously.

15. Psychology 30515 Items from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (T/F) I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone. (T) I have never intensely disliked anyone. (T) No matter who I’m talking to, I’m always a good listener. (T) There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. (F) On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. (F) There have been occasions when I felt like smashing something. (F)

16. Psychology 30516 Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales (T/F) Items assessing impression management: I never swear. (T) I always obey laws, even if I’m unlikely to get caught. (T) When I hear people talking privately, I avoid listening. (T) I have never dropped litter on the street. (T) I sometimes drive faster than the speed limit. (F) I have received too much change from a salesperson without telling him or her. (F)

17. Psychology 30517 Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales, Continued Items assessing self-deceptive enhancement: My first impressions of people usually turn out to be right. (T) I am very confident of my judgments. (T) I am fully in control of my own fate. (T) I always know why I like things. (T) I don’t care to know what other people really think of me. (T) It would be hard for me to break any of my bad habits. (F)

18. Psychology 30518 According to the trait approach, personality is best described as a constellation of traits (e.g., conscientious, outgoing, anxious). E.g., Peter is jealous. “Jealous” describes Peter’s behaviour: He calls his girlfriend several times a day, insists that she wear his ring, etc. Traits are viewed as descriptive summaries of behaviour. Dispositional Perspective: Trait Approach What are traits?

19. Psychology 30519 What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? 1. Lexical Method  Based on lexical hypothesis: “All important differences in personality are encoded in natural language.” Trait psychologists have used three methods to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality:

20. Psychology 30520  Employs two criteria to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality: (a)Synonym frequency: The number of synonyms that exist for a given trait reflect the importance of that trait. E.g., Dominant vs. manipulative.

21. Psychology 30521 (b)Cross-cultural universality: Traits that are represented in many languages are more important than traits that are represented in only a few languages. E.g., Trait among the Yanomamo Indians of Venezuela: Unokai = trait ascribed to a male who has achieved manhood by killing another male. A comparable trait does not exist in any English- speaking culture.

22. Psychology 30522 2. Statistical Method  An atheoretical approach.  Typically, involves collecting S-data with structured questionnaires (e.g., adjectives or statements accompanied by rating scales).  The resulting data are analyzed using a statistical procedure referred to as factor analysis.

23. Psychology 30523  Factor analysis examines the correlations between all pairs of items and identifies groups of items that are highly correlated with one another.  Each group of items that is identified is thought to reflect a single dimension of personality.  Each dimension is interpreted and labeled by the researcher (a highly subjective process).

24. Psychology 30524 E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis AdjectiveFactor 1Factor 2Factor 3 Humourous.66 -.06.19 Amusing.65.23.02 Popular.57.13.22 Hard-working.05.63.01 Productive.04.52-.19 Determined.23.59.08 Imaginative-.01.09.62 Original.13.05.53 Inventive.06.26.47 “Extraversion”“Conscientiousness”“Openness”Factor label

25. Psychology 30525  Thus, factor analysis allows the researcher to reduce a large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions.  Each dimension is thought of as a superordinate trait that encompasses several more narrowly defined traits.

26. Psychology 30526 E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis AdjectiveFactor 1Factor 2Factor 3 Humourous.66 -.06.19 Amusing.65.23.02 Popular.57.13.22 Hard-working.05.63.01 Productive.04.52-.19 Determined.23.59.08 Imaginative-.01.09.62 Original.13.05.53 Inventive.06.26.47 “Extraversion”“Conscientiousness”“Openness”Factor label

27. Psychology 30527 3.Theoretical Method  The traits that are most important in describing personality are identified on the basis of a pre- existing theory.  E.g., Psychoanalytic Theory Anal-expulsive personality type: Disorganized, hostile, destructive. Anal-retentive personality type: Stubborn, stingy, orderly.

28. Psychology 30528 Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits Taxonomy: A classification system (e.g., Periodic Table of Elements). Over the past century, dozens of taxonomies have been proposed for personality traits. E.g., Cattell’s taxonomy Eysenck’s taxonomy In recent years, however, one taxonomy has been particularly influential—the Big 5 taxonomy of personality traits. been developed?

29. Psychology 30529 The Big 5 taxonomy emerged from decades of research by dozens of researchers. This research combined the lexical and statistical methods described earlier:  Personality traits identified from English language dictionaries were administered to participants in the form of self-report questionnaires.  The resulting data were factor analyzed in order to reduce the large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions.

30. Psychology 30530 Using these methods, dozens of studies demonstrated that there are 5 personality dimensions, each of which encompasses a number of more narrowly defined traits. The 5 dimensions are: 1.Extraversion  Reflects engagement with the social world.  Encompasses traits such as assertive, outspoken, talkative vs. inhibited, quiet, shy.

31. Psychology 30531 2. Agreeableness  Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony.  Encompasses traits such as kind, sympathetic, understanding vs. cold, cruel, harsh. 3. Conscientiousness  Reflects ability to control and regulate impulses.  Encompasses traits such as meticulous, organized, practical vs. careless, disorderly, sloppy.

32. Psychology 30532 4. Neuroticism  Reflects a tendency to experience negative emotions.  Encompasses traits such as calm, optimistic, stable vs. anxious, emotional, insecure. 5. Openness to Experience  Reflects an open and creative cognitive style.  Encompasses traits such as artistic, intellectual, philosophical vs. uncreative, unimaginative, unreflective.

33. Psychology 30533 Today, trait psychologists tend to assess participants’ scores on the Big 5 using one of two types of measures: (a) Self-report questionnaires containing adjectives accompanied by rating scales. E.g., the Big Five Test administered in class.

34. Psychology 30534 Score 1: Openness to Experience FemalesX = 19.4SD = 2.925%ile = 1875%ile = 21 MalesX = 20.3SD = 2.825%ile = 1875%ile = 22 Score 2: Conscientiousness FemalesX = 20.2SD = 3.225%ile = 1975%ile = 23 MalesX = 18.8SD = 3.325%ile = 1775%ile = 21 Big Five Test X = Mean SD = Standard deviation 25%ile and below = Low scores 75%ile and above = High scores

35. Psychology 30535 Score 4: Agreeableness FemalesX = 22.2SD = 2.625%ile = 2175%ile = 24 MalesX = 18.8SD = 3.325%ile = 1775%ile = 21 Score 5: Neuroticism FemalesX = 18.5SD = 4.425%ile = 1675%ile = 22 MalesX = 16.3SD = 4.925%ile = 1375%ile = 20 Score 3: Extraversion FemalesX = 19.0SD = 3.525%ile = 1775%ile = 22 MalesX = 18.8SD = 3.525%ile = 1675%ile = 22

36. Psychology 30536 Questions That Were Answered in Today’s Lecture Research Methods, continued 7.How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued) 8. What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures?

37. Psychology 30537 Dispositional Perspective on Personality: Trait Approach 1.What are traits? 2.What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? 3.Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed?