1. Early and Modern Numeration Systems
Math in Our World
Section 4.1
Early and Modern
Numeration Systems

2. Learning Objectives Define a numeration system.
Work with numbers in the Egyptian system.
Work with numbers in the Chinese system.
Identify place values in the Hindu-Arabic system.
Write Hindu-Arabic numbers in expanded notation.
Work with numbers in the Babylonian system.
Work with Roman numerals.

3. Numeration Systems
A numeration system consists of a set of symbols (numerals) to represent numbers, and a set of rules for combining those symbols.
A number is a concept, or an idea, used to represent some quantity. A numeral, on the other hand, is a symbol used to represent a number.

4. Tally System
A tally system is the simplest kind of numeration system, and almost certainly the oldest.In a tally system there is only one symbol needed and a number is represented by repeating that symbol.
Most often, they are used to keep track of the number of occurrences of some event. The most common symbol used in tally systems is |, which we call a stroke. Tallies are usually grouped by fives, with the fifth stroke crossing the first four, as in ||||. 4

5. EXAMPLE 1 Using a Tally System
An amateur golfer gets the opportunity to play with Tiger Woods, and, star struck, his game completely falls apart. On the very first hole, it takes him six shots to reach the green, then three more to hole out. Use a tally system to represent his total number of shots on that hole.
SOLUTION
The total number of shots is nine, which we tally up as

6. Simple Grouping Systems
In a simple grouping system there are symbols that represent select numbers. Often, these numbers are powers of 10. To write a number in a simple grouping system, repeat the symbol representing the appropriate value(s) until the desired quantity is reached.

7. The Egyptian Numeration System
One of the earliest formal numeration systems was developed by the Egyptians sometime prior to 3000 BCE. It used a system of hieroglyphics using pictures to represent numbers.

8. EXAMPLE 2 Using the Egyptian Numeration System
Find the numerical value of each Egyptian numeral. (a) (b) (c)

9. EXAMPLE 2 Using the Egyptian Numeration System
SOLUTION The value of any numeral is determined by counting up the number of each symbol and multiplying the number of occurrences by the corresponding value. Then the amounts for each symbol are added. (a) There are 4 heel bones and 3 staffs, so to find the value… (4 x 10) + (3 x 1) = = 43.
= 10
= 1

10. EXAMPLE 2 Using the Egyptian Numeration System
SOLUTION
(b)
(3 x 100,000) + (3 x 10,000) + (2 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (6 x 1)
300, , = 330,236
(c)
(1 x 1,000,000) + (2 x 10,000) + (2 x 1000) + (2 x 100) +
(1 x 10) + (3 x 1) = 1,000, ,
=1,022,213

11. EXAMPLE 3 Writing Numbers in Egyptian Notation
Write each number as an Egyptian numeral. 42
3,200,419

12. EXAMPLE 3 Writing Numbers in Egyptian Notation
SOLUTION
Forty-two can be written as 4 x x 1, so it consists of four tens and two ones. We would write it using four of the tens symbol (the heel bone) and two of the ones symbol (the vertical staff).
Since 3,200,419 consists of 3 millions, 2 hundred thousands, 4 one hundreds, 1 ten, and 9 ones, it is written as

13. Positional Systems
In a positional system no multiplier is needed. The value of the symbol is understood by its position in the number. To represent a number in a positional system you simply put the numeral in an appropriate place in the number, and its value is determined by its location.

14. Hindu-Arabic Numeration System
The numeration system we use today is called the Hindu-Arabic system. It uses 10 symbols called digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
This is a positional system since the position of each digit indicates a specific value. The place value of each number is given as
The number 82,653 means there are 8 ten thousands, 2 thousands, 6 hundreds, 5 tens, and 3 ones. We say that the place value of the 6 in this numeral is hundreds.

15. EXAMPLE 9 Finding Place Values
In the number 153,946, what is the place value of each digit? a) 9 b) 3 c) 5 d) 1 e) 6
SOLUTION
(a) hundreds
(b) thousands
(c) ten thousands
(d) hundred thousands
(e) ones

16. Hindu-Arabic Numeration System
To clarify the place values, Hindu-Arabic numbers are sometimes written in expanded notation. An example, using the numeral 32,569, is shown below.
32,569 = 30, ,
= 3 x 10, x 1, x x
= 3 x x x x
Since all of the place values in the Hindu-Arabic system correspond to powers of 10, the system is known as a base 10 system.

17. EXAMPLE 10 Writing a base 10 Number in Expanded Form
Write 9,034,761 in expanded notation.
SOLUTION
9,034,761 can be written as
9,000, , ,
= 9 x 1,000, x 10, x 1, x x
= 9 x x x x x

18. Babylonian Numeration System
The Babylonians had a numerical system consisting of two symbols. They are and . (These wedge-shaped symbols are known as “cuneiform.”) The represents the number of 10s, and represents the number of 1s. The ancient Babylonian system is sort of a cross between a multiplier system and a positional system.

19. EXAMPLE 11 Using the Babylonian Numeration System
SOLUTION
Since there are 3 tens and 6 ones, the number represents 36.

20. Babylonian Numeration System
You might think it would be cumbersome to write large numbers in this system; however, the Babylonian system was also positional in base 60. Numbers from 1 to 59 were written using the two symbols shown in Example 11, but after the number 60, a space was left between the groups of numbers. For example, the number 2,538 was written as and means that there are 42 sixties and 18 ones. The space separates the 60s from the ones.

21. EXAMPLE 12 Using the Babylonian Numeration System
Write the numbers represented. 21

22. EXAMPLE 12 Using the Babylonian Numeration System
SOLUTION
There are 52 sixties and 34 ones; so the number represents
52 x 60 = 3,120
+ 34 x 1 =
3,154
There are twelve 3,600s (602), fifty-one 60s and twenty-three 1s.
12 x 3,600 = 43,200
51 x = 3,060
+ 23 x =
46,283 22

23. Roman Numeration System
The Romans used letters to represent their numbers.
The Roman system is similar to a simple grouping system, but to save space, the Romans also used the concept of subtraction. For example, 8 is written as VIII, but 9 is written as IX, meaning that 1 is subtracted from 10 to get 9. 23

24. Roman Numeration System
There are three rules for writing numbers in Roman numerals:
When a letter is repeated in sequence, its numerical value is added. For example, XXX represents , or 30.
When smaller-value letters follow larger-value letters, the numerical values of each are added. For example, LXVI represents , or 66.
When a smaller-value letter precedes a larger-value letter, the smaller value is subtracted from the larger value. For example, IV represents 5 - 1, or 4, and XC represents , or 90.In addition, I can only precede V or X, X can only precede L or C, and C can only precede D or M. Then 4 is written as IV, 9 is written as IX, 40 is written as XL, 90 is written XC, 400 is written as CD, and 900 is written as CM. 24

25. EXAMPLE 14 Using Roman Numerals
Find the value of each Roman Numeral.
LXVIII (b) XCIV (c) MCML
(d) CCCXLVI (e) DCCCLV
SOLUTION
L = 50, X = 10, V = 5, and III = 3; so LXVIII = 68.
XC = 90 and IV = 4; so XCIV = 94.
M = 1,000, CM = 900, L = 50; so MCML = 1,950.
CCC = 300, XL = 40, V = 5, and I = 1;
so CCCXLVI = 346.
(e) D = 500, CCC = 300, L = 50, V = 5; so DCCCLV = 855. 25

26. EXAMPLE 15 Writing Numbers Using Roman Numerals
Write each number using Roman Numerals.
19 (b) 238 (c) 1,999 (d) 840 (e) 72
SOLUTION
19 is written as or XIX.
238 is written as or CCXXXVIII.
1,999 is written as 1, or MCMXCIX.
840 is written as or DCCCXL.
72 is written as or LXXII. 26