1. Introductory Psychology Concepts
CHAPTER 8
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Professor Veronica Emilia Nuzzolo
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation
The process by which activities are started, directed, and sustained to fulfill both physical and psychological needs.
Passer 235

3. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation
Instinct Approach to Motivation: Actions Motivated By Innate Behavior Patterns
Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned.
People and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival.
Instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions.
Passer 235

4. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation
Drive Reduction Theories: Hunger Motivates Action To Find Food To Reduce Hunger.
Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need.
Primary drives: Related to biological needs of the body, or the species as a whole (hunger, thirst, sleep, sex).
Secondary drives: Behavior fulfills no obvious biological need (people have strong needs to achieve academically and professionally).
Passer 235

5. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation
Homeostasis: Underlying Primary Drives and the Body’s Tendency to Maintain a Steady Internal State.
With Homeostasis, a series of feedback loops is used to regulate body functions, similar to the way a thermostat controls the air temperature in a room.
When body temperature becomes too high, the blood vessels expand, and we sweat as our bodies try to lower the temperature.
Feldman 323

6. Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation
Types of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied (Maslow, 1987).
Motivation progresses up the pyramid from the broadest, most fundamental biological needs to higher-order needs.
Feldman 326

7. Instrumental behaviors
Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements that can influence behavior.
Components of emotion
Emotions are triggered by external or internal eliciting stimuli.
Physiological
responses
Eliciting
stimuli
Passer 376
Cognitive
appraisal
Instrumental behaviors
Expressive behaviors

8. Instrumental behaviors
Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior.
Components of emotion
Emotional responses result from our appraisal of these stimuli.
Physiological
responses
Eliciting
stimuli
Passer 376
Cognitive
appraisal
Instrumental behaviors
Expressive behaviors

9. Instrumental behaviors
Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior.
Components of emotion
Our bodies respond physiologically to our appraisals.
Physiological
responses
Eliciting
stimuli
Passer 376
Cognitive
appraisal
Instrumental behaviors
Expressive behaviors

10. Instrumental behaviors
Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior.
Components of emotion
Emotions include behavior tendencies: + Expressive (smiling, crying) + Instrumental (fighting back in self-defense)
Physiological
responses
Eliciting
stimuli
Passer 376
Cognitive
appraisal
Instrumental behaviors
Expressive behaviors

11. Theories of Emotion Passer 376 The James-Lange Theory
Our bodily reactions determine the subjective emotion we experience.
The Cannon-Bard Theory
The subjective experiences of emotion and physiological arousal do not cause one another, but instead are independent responses to an emotion-arousing situation.
The Schacter-Singer Theory
Emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues.
Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling something, but situational cues give us the information we need to label the arousal and tell ourselves what we are feeling.
Passer 376

12. Facial Feedback Hypothesis
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, feedback from the facial muscles to the brain plays a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotions that we experience.
(Adelmann & Zajonc, 1989).
Holding a pencil in the teeth activates the muscles used in smiling, and thus evokes more pleasant feelings than holding the pencil in one’s lips.
Passer 387

13. Anorexia Nervosa Feldman 333
Weight loss of at least 15% of ideal weight.
A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance are unusual.
Despite looking skeleton-like to others, people with the weight disorder anorexia nervosa see themselves as overweight.
Feldman 333

14. Bulimia Nervosa Feldman 333 The cycle of bingeing and purging.
A disorder in which a person binges on incredibly large portions of food and later may attempt to purge the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives.
Feldman 333

15. Causes of Eating Disorders
Biological Factors
A chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, perhaps brought on by genetic factors.
Societal Pressures
Society’s valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable.
Mood Disorders
(Bulimic) food cravings are often triggered by stress and negative mood, bingeing temporarily reduces a negative emotional state.
Family Environment
Disorder resulting from overly demanding parents or other family problems.
Feldman 333

16. Treatment of Eating Disorders
Treatment is difficult and may take years, but with professional help, about half of all anorexic and bulimic patients fully recover. (Becker et al., 1999; Westin et al., 20004)
Others are able to eat more normally but maintain their preoccupation with food and weight.
Feldman 333

17. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Sexuality: Physical and Psychological Perspective
Sex is often described as a biological reproductive motive, yet people usually do not have sex to conceive children.
Evolution shaped our physiology so that sex feels good
Periodically, having sex for pleasure leads to childbirth, through which our genes are passed on.
People engage in sex to:
Reproduce
Obtain and give sensual pleasure
Express love
Foster intimacy
Fulfill one’s “duty”
Conform to peer pressure, and a host of other reasons.

18. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Female Sex Organs
Ovary
Uterus
Cervix
Bladder
Pubic bone
Vagina
Urethra
Anus
Build image: confirm client intent to add 9 layers?
Clitoris
Female

19. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Male Sex Organs
Large intestine
Bladder
Seminal vesicle
Pubic bone
Ejaculatory duct
Vas deferens
Prostate
Urethra
Anus
Penis
Build image: confirm client intent to add 13 layers?
Testis
Scrotum
Glans
Male

20. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Psychological Side of Sexuality
Sexual arousal typically begins with desire and a sexual stimulus that is perceived positively (Walen & Roth, 1987).
Sexual fantasy is an important component of many people’s lives, studies indicate that men sexually fantasize more than women (Martinez & Raul, 2000).
Psychological factors can not only trigger sexual arousal but also inhibit it. Stress, fatigue, and anger at one’s partner can lead to temporary arousal problems.
Sexual dysfunction refers to chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person. It may result from injuries, diseases, and drug effects, some causes are psychological.

21. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Psychological Side of Sexuality
Gender: The psychological experience of being male of female.
Gender Roles: Typical behaviors which people learn that belong to males and females as dictated by their cultural norms.
Gender Typing: Process by which people learn appropriate gender roles within their cultures.
Gender Identity: One’s view of oneself as male of female.

22. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender: Perception of Being Male or Female
Although there is a good deal of overlap between the concepts of sex and gender, they are not the same.
Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior
Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society.

23. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender: Psychological Aspect of Being Male or Female
Men and women differ in how positively they view their own abilities and how they estimate the probability of their future success.
In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men do.
Content of men’s and women’s speech differs, with women’s speech being more precise. Speech patterns lead others to view them as more tentative, less assertive.
Women’s and men’s nonverbal behavior differs in several significant respects. In conversation with opposite sex, women look at their partner significantly more while listening than while speaking.

24. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender Typing: Process in Which People Learn their Cultural Appropriate Gender Role
Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ according to gender.
Differences in environment and activity based on gender are described as socialization, the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior.
According to Sandra Bem (1998), socialization produces a gender schema, a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender.

25. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender Identity
Gender identity: The sense of “femaleness” or “maleness” that becomes a central aspect of one’s personal identity.
Most children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and can label themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl.
Gender constancy is the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of person, developing at age 6 or 7.

26. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender Stereotyping
As gender identity develops, children acquire sex-role stereotypes--beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are appropriate for boys and girls to possess.
Every group, including family and cultural groups, has norms for expected and accepted gender behavior.
Parents, siblings, friends, the mass media, and other socializing agents convey these norms as we grow up.
As we internalize these norms, they become part of our identity (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

27. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality
Gender Stereotyping: Positive and Negative Aspects
Stereotyping can be either negative or positive, but in either case stereotyping is inherently harmful for three reasons:
1) Stereotypes reduce our ability to treat members of a gender as individuals.
2) Stereotypes lead to narrow expectations for gender behavior.
3) Stereotypes lead to faulty attributions, the theory that people tend to look for explanations for specific behavior based on gender stereotypes.

28. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender: Perception of Being Male or Female
Although there is a good deal of overlap between the concepts of sex and gender, they are not the same.
Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior
Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society.

29. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender: Psychological Aspect of Being Male or Female
Men and women differ in how positively they view their own abilities and how they estimate the probability of their future success.
In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men.
Content of men’s and women’s speech differs, with women’s speech being more precise. Speech patterns lead others to view them as more tentative, less assertive.
Women’s and men’s nonverbal behavior differs in several significant respects. In conversation with opposite sex, women look at their partner significantly more while listening than while speaking.

30. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender Typing: Process in Which People Learn their Cultural Appropriate Gender Role
Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ in important respects according to gender.
Differences in environment and activity based on gender are described as socialization, the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior.
According to Sandra Bem (1998), socialization produces a gender schema, a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender.

31. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender Identity
Gender identity is the sense of “femaleness” or “maleness” that becomes a central aspect of one’s personal identity.
Most children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and can label themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl.
Gender constancy is the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of person, developing at age 6 or 7.

32. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender Stereotyping
As gender identity develops, children acquire sex-role stereotypes; beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are appropriate for boys and girls to possess.
Every group, including family and cultural groups, has norms for expected and accepted gender behavior.
Parents, siblings, friends, the mass media, and other socializing agents convey these norms as we grow up.
As we internalize these norms, they become part of our identity (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

33. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender
Gender Stereotyping: Positive and Negative Aspects
Stereotyping can be either negative or positive, but in either case stereotyping is inherently harmful for three reasons:
1) Stereotypes reduce our ability to treat members of a gender as an individual.
2) Stereotypes lead to narrow expectations for gender behavior.
3) Stereotypes lead to faulty attributions, the theory that people tend to look for explanations for specific behavior based on gender stereotypes.

34. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles
Culture’s Expectation: For Male and Female Behavior
Gender-role socialization provides us with gender schemas, organized mental structures that contain our understanding of the attributes and behaviors that are appropriate and expected for males and females
(Bem, 1981).

35. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles
Theories of Children Learning Gender Roles
Social-learning theory:
Gender differences are learned through a society’s division of labor and the social roles established for men and women.
Gender schema theory:
Within a given culture, gender schemas tell us what the typical man or woman should be like.
In Western cultures, men tend to prize attributes related to achievement, emotional strength, athleticism. Women prize interpersonal competencies, kindness, and helpfulness to others (Beyer, 1990; Marsh, 1990).