1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

2. All forms of energy are not equally capable of doing physiological work. We are not capable of using heat to do any form of physiological work…it is wasted energy. Physiological Work Examples of Physiological Work Synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids Generation of electrical or chemical gradients Muscle Contraction

3. MAX KLIBER: THE FIRE OF LIFE Life is a combustion process You are using oxygen to burn fuel (food) to create energy (and waste heat) Oxygen Heat Metabolism

4. YOU CONSUME O 2 & FOOD TO PRODUCE ENERGY Hydrocarbon Fuel + O 2 CO 2 + H 2 O Heat Combustion in a Pop Bottle Demonstration

5. EACH “FUEL” DEMONSTRATES A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AMOUNTS OF: O 2 consumed ATP produced CO 2 produced

6. Mechanisms of Energy (ATP) Production  Oxidative Phosphorylation 5-10 seconds  Anaerobic Respiration 1-2 minutes  Aerobic Respiration Conditioning dependent All 3 major categories of food can be degraded through these processes

7. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

8. Carbohydrates are present in food in various forms:  Simple sugars:  Monosaccharides  Complex chemical units:  Dissacharides  Polysaccharides

9. Digestion of Carbohydrates  Carbohydrates Ingested  Mechanical Digestion via chewing  Broken down into monosaccharides  Absorbtion in stomach, duodenum and proximal jejunum

10. BLOOD GLUCOSE REGULATION The Liver and Pancreas

11. The Role of the Liver 1. Simple sugars enter freely into liver 2. Galactose and Fructose are enzymatically converted to glucose 3. Glucose is stored in the liver and only the liver can release glucose into the blood stream. 4. When glucose is readily available it is incorporated into glycogen for storage via glycogenesis. 5. When blood glucose drops glucose can be released from glycogen via glycogenolysis

12. Pancreatic Secretions 1. Insulin: lower blood glucose level 2. Glucagon: raise blood glucose level 3. Epinephrine: raise blood glucose level

13. CARBOHYDRATES: the major source of energy (ATP)for the body

14. Monosaccharide a simple sugar with the formula C x H 2x O x Galactose Glucose Fructose

15. Disaccharide: 2 simple sugars bonded together The formula for a disaccharide is one oxygen and two hydrogens short of the 1:2:1 ratio because a water is removed in the bonding process. Sucrose: table sugar Lactose: milk sugar Maltose: grain sugar

16. Polysaccharide more than 2 simple sugars bonded together Glycogen Starch Cellulose (can not be digested)

17. Glucose and the Liver  Simple sugars enter the liver and enzymes convert them to glucose  The liver can release its glucose stores as necessary or absorb blood glucose.  Excess blood glucose triggers release of glycogen which absorbs excess glucose

18. Carbohydrate Digestion Polysaccharides Salivary Amylase (mouth) Pancreatic Amylase (small intestine) Disaccharides Lactase Maltase & Sucrase (small intestine) LactoseMaltoseSucrose Galactose GlucoseFructose

19. Carbohydrate Facts  monosaccharides enter the capillary blood.  causes blood sugar to rise triggering the pancreas to release insulin which is needed to move sugar from blood into cells.  When this process goes fast - as with simple sugars - you're more likely to feel hungry again soon and blood sugar will rise more rapidly or spike.  When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll be satisfied longer. These types of complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time and will cause blood sugar to rise more slowly and evenly.  If you have consumed more carbohydrates than your body needs, the glucose will be turned into glycogen and stored in your muscles and liver for use in the future. When the liver and muscle tissues exceed their capacity for storing glycogen, the excess is converted into fat.

20. PROTEIN large complex molecules made up of one or more chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds

21. METABOLISM OF PROTEIN Amino Acids

22. Protein Structure:  Made up of a combination of about 20 naturally occurring amino acids  Joined by Peptide Bonds  Carboxyllic acid and an amino group

23. Role of the Liver:  Amino Acids stored in liver, blood stream and body tissues  Amino Acids can be transferred from one of these locations to another  Amino acids are stored by deamination so that they can be used as an energy source (ATP)

24. Amino Acids as a Fuel Source  Amino acids are only used as a fuel source during starvation  When there is an abundance of amino acids they are converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) and fatty acids and glycerol (lipogenesis)

25. Waste Products of Protein Metabolism  Deamination forms ammonia which is toxic  The liver detoxifies ammonia by converting it into the less toxic, water soluble substance urea.

26. Hormones and Protein Metabolism  Human growth hormone and insulin increase the uptake of amino acids and protein synthesis in muscle tissue.  Thyroid hormones also regulate protein metabolism  Androgens from the testes and the adrenal gland stimulate protein synthesis.

27. PEPTIDE BONDS when 2 amino acids bond water is removed (dehydration synthesis) leaving a carbon and a nitrogen directly bonded to one another

28. Types of Protein  Dietary Proteins: ingested protein  Enzyme Proteins: secretions from GI tract and other various glands  Body Proteins: sloughed off and disintegrating mucosal layer cells

29.  Amino acids can be converted into glucose by a series of processes.  This happens primarily during starvation.

30. Amino Acids Protein Large Polypeptides Small Polypeptides Pepsin (stomach) Trypsin Chymotrypsin & Carboxypeptidase secreted by pancreas (small intestine) Aminopeptidases Carboxypeptidase & Dipeptidases (small intestine)

31. Protein Facts  The amino acids are absorbed by the blood capillaries of the small intestines, carried through the liver, and then go into the blood of the general circulation  Various body cells take what they need to repair and reform the protein structures they need.  Skeletal muscles act as an emergency source of protein if insufficient amounts are eaten. The body can break down its own muscle tissue, and transport the amino acids gathered from that muscle destruction to the more vital organs, if necessary.  People on very low fat diets are by default, on low protein diets. This is because most of the rich sources of protein in foods are also in sources of dietary fat. These dieters lose their muscle mass because their bodies cannibalize their own muscles as a source of the proteins that they need, but are not eating.  The blood contains amino acids at all times. Fasting does not clear them, and a high protein diet does not materially increase them. The body has a constant need for protein amino acids, and it keeps a fairly uniform balance.

32. LIPIDS fats and fatlike compounds, characterized by their insolubility in water

33. METABOLISM OF FATS The Ultimate Fuel Source

34. Triglycerides (stored fats): glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains There is a carboxylic acid group on the end of each fatty acid chain The longer the chain and the smaller number of double bonds, the lower the fluidity state Fat Chemistry

35. Fats are the ideal substance for storing energy because per unit weight they occupy less volume and produce more ATP than carbohydrates and protein. 60% of the energy requirement of the heart, under basal condition, is derived from fat Fat as an Energy Source

36. Glycerol can be liberated by the breakdown of triglycerides(lipolysis) in the liver and fat cells. Glycerol molecules can be recombined to form glucose through glycogenesis (reverse glycolysis) Fatty acids can also be converted into some amino acids and are then used to make proteins. The Role of the Liver

37. FATS LIPID MOLECULES COMPOSED OF: Glycerol: 3 carbon skeleton with 3 alcohol groups 3 fatty acids: carbon skeleton with a carboxylic acid group on one end

39. PHOSPHOLIPID contains a glycerol and fatty acids like a fat molecule but the 3rd fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group

41. SATURATED FATTY ACID contains a carbon skeleton with no double bonds

42. Unsaturated Fatty Acid  contains a carbon skeleton with at least one double bond

43. Bonding of lipids is a dehydration synthesis reaction

44.  Glycerol liberated by the breakdown of lipids can be recombined to form glucose.

45. Unemulsified Fats Bile Salts produced by the liver Pancreatic Lipase (small intestine) Monoglycerides Glycerol & Fatty Acids