1. Aggression 3
The sequel

2. Social psychological approaches to explaining aggression
Social psychological theories of aggression, for example, social learning theory, deindividuation
Institutional aggression
Biological explanations of aggression
Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Genetic factors in aggressive behaviour
Evolution and human aggression
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and jealousy
Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and warfare

3. You Answer this question.
In evolutionary terms give 4 reasons why males are aggressive:
Silver back: Silver back Gorillas have higher status and so will mate more often.
Silver back: Gorillas are selected by females to mate with as offspring have higher chance of survival.
The fact that the Silver back is seen as the Alpha male means that there is not constant fighting.
Low status males have to have high risk strategies to mate.

4. Evolution and human aggression
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and jealousy
Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and warfare

5. Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and jealousy
Carrier (2007) suggested that our ape-like human ancestors maintain short legs for a long period of time because the short squat position made it easier for them to fight over females for example. He looked at the influence of leg length in terms of creating aggressive behaviour by comparing aborigines to eight primate species, he concluded that males who had a heavy body weight and longer canine teeth in comparison to the females generally had shorter legs.

6. Infidelity and Jealousy
Daly and Watson (1988) state that over time men have developed a series of mate retention techniques to keep “hold” of the partners from being with other men. This can come in the form of snooping through their possessions, preventing them from talking to other men or emotionally/physically abusing their partner.

7. Cuckoldry and Sexual Jealousy
Cuckoldry is the process by which a female tricks a male into thinking that the child she is bearing or has conceived is his when it actually belongs to another man. While cuckoldry is dangerous for women it is equally as dangerous for males, as they can lose their chance to produce an offspring and pass on their genes. Thus the development of techniques to prevent this kind of situation from arising has occurred due to sexual jealousy. Some ways to prevent this is by sexual coercive tactics such as partner rape, to increase the chance of the male being the father of the child. Thornhill and Thornhill (1992) argue that women who resist having sex with their partners might be doing so because they have been sexually unfaithful, thus this can also increase the chance of sexual coercive tactics being used.

8. Mate Retention and Violence
Buss and Shackelford (1997) examined mate-retention in 214 married couples, it was seen that men claimed to use debasement techniques (i.e. giving into her every wish) more often than intra-sexual threats (i.e. threatening to beat up the other man).
While women reported higher use of verbal signals and threats of punishing infidelity (i.e. leaving the male if he cheated). It was also seen men married to younger women used more retention techniques and devoted more time to their partner than males married to older women.

9. Shackelford et al (2005)
Studied the samples of 461 males in relationships (Study 1) and 560 women in relationships (Study 2), all participants were in committed relationships and none of the men in Study 1 were married to the women in Study 2. It was seen that that generally the males were always older than their female partners. Both groups then had to answer a MRI (Mate Retention Inventory) test by which males described which techniques they used to retain their mate up to and out of a possible 104 displayed on the sheet. They we also asked how often the 26 violent techniques were used and how often the female receive injuries out of the possible 20. Results showed that males used two main violent forms of technique to retain the females these were; shouting at their partner for looking at other males and direct guarding (i.e. monopolizing her time at party for example). Men also were reported to emotionally bully females i.e. by making them feel guilty by threatening to kill themselves. Women also agreed that men who were more emotionally manipulative were also more violent towards them.

10. Evaluation of infidelity and jealousy
USE OF MATE-RETENTION TECHINIQUES.: It has been seen that these techniques are a direct result of sexual jealousy, in males who prevent their partners from talking to other men 72% of those studied have required medical attention following an attack from their partner.
RESEARCH ON SEXUAL COERCION: Shackelford and Goetz (2006) found that men who had sexually coerced their partners (forced them to have sex) were more likely to report that their partners were being unfaithful. Also women had been coerced by their partners were more likely to have actually cheated on their partner.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The use of mate-retention techniques are an early sign that the relationship may lead to the use of violent behaviour.

11. Sexual Jealousy:
Men are fearful of infidelity and cuckoldry in relationships. In an analysis of 8 studies of same sex killings involving “love triangles”, Daly and Wilson (1988) found that 92% of these murders involved males killing males.
Lalvmeire et al (2005) state that some men rape their partners in order to increase parental certainty and therefore decrease the risk of cuckoldry.

12. No means No
Cup of tea.

13. Evaluation of evolutionary explanations of mate retention strategies
Research supports the idea that sexual jealousy and cuckoldry leads to men using violence and coercive tactics against their partners. ‐ The use of mate retention strategies may be an early indicator of potential violence against a female partner.

14. Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and warfare
Humans are most likely to survive if they have access to resources, if they can defend their resources and protect their families, and if they can attract and gain access to mates. Aggressive behaviour may have evolved to support the human race in achieving these goals.

15. War: What is it good for? In evolutionary terms:
Getting rid of competitors
Gaining territory and therefore food supply.
Status.
War allows a group to work better together, as when a common enemy is identified, the group focuses on its similarities and co‐operates rather than focusing on its differences. If a group is successful in war, they gain more territory and resources. In occupying someone else’s territory, a group also gains more mating opportunities, resulting in increased reproductive fitness.

16. War
War is defined as “forming a group to attack others within the same species”. The adaptive purposes of war can be explained through both natural and sexual selection.

17. Natural Selection
War allows a group to work better together, as when a common enemy is identified, the group focuses on its similarities and co‐operates rather than focusing on its differences.
If a group is successful in war, they gain more territory and resources. In occupying someone else’s territory, a group also gains more mating opportunities, resulting in increased reproductive fitness.

18. Chagnon (1968) (war and reproduction)
Chagnon examined modern day tribes. He found that the men of the Yanomama of South America often kidnapped women from other groups during conflict, and were obsessed with the size of their villages.
He proposed that this was because the only advantage one group could have over another was their resources.

19. Kelly and Dunbar (2001)
The researchers argued that males commit acts of bravery because there is a female preference for risk prone males. It is more likely that men who commit heroic acts will protect their mates in times of danger. The bravest males were the most successful hunters, which would lead to better social status and resources which would also be enjoyed by their mate.

20. Steams (1989)
Steams argued that females choose men who commit acts of bravery because their courageous genes will be passed on their offspring, and these offspring will be better able to defend the group in times of need. The evolutionary theory states that men evolved as hunter gatherers. Therefore, women would need to choose mates that could protect them. Acts of heroic bravery were advantageous for our ancestors, as females would have looked for this characteristic due to the need for protection. In Bosnia during the Yugoslavian conflicts, Serbian men carried out organised rapes of over 20,000 Muslim women and terrorised women into fleeing their land. This could have been advantageous, as it increases reproductive fitness and allowed the men to gain more resources.

21. Interesting

22. Group display and sport
It has been argued that tribal warfare has been replaced by sporting events.
The New Zealand All Black rugby team does the ‘Haka’ before a game which was originally performed by Maori warriors before going into battle.
These are ritualised forms of aggression where the benefits of success (e.g. high status and access to desirable mates) are available to competitors, but also felt by fans who belong to the wider ‘tribe’ (basking in reflected glory’, Cialdini et al, 1976)
Fans display their connection with winners (e.g. flags, clothes) to enhance their own image

23. Marsh (1978)
Hooliganism is the equivalent of ceremonial conflict seen in some animal species.
e.g. they are exclusively male and involve trials of strength over territory, and risk of physical harm and death are minimised.
This is a way of gaining power and status and therefore access to resources without threatening the survival of group members, thus preserving the species.

24. And finally! Social psychological approaches to explaining aggression
Social psychological theories of aggression, for example, social learning theory, deindividuation
Institutional aggression
Biological explanations of aggression
Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Genetic factors in aggressive behaviour
Evolution and human aggression
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and jealousy
Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and warfare

25. Ethics?